Earth Science: Layers and Properties

Earth Science

• Earth Layers (Density): Crust, mantle, core (listed in order of increasing density).
• Density and Temperature: Density decreases as substances heat up and increases as they cool down.
• Convection: A process where heated material rises and cooler material sinks, creating a circular flow.
• Solidification Temperatures: Different substances solidify at different temperatures.
• Earth's Heat Sources: Internal radioactive decay is a primary source.
• Scientific Method Strengths/Limitations: Science can be strong in predicting and explaining phenomena, but hypotheses and theories can be disproven with new evidence.
• Evaluating Information: Critical analysis of information sources is important.
• Star Classification: Stars are classified based on characteristics like temperature, brightness and size.
• Star Luminosity: Luminosity is a factor that affects the brightness of stars, and it is affected by temperature and size.
• Star Apparent Brightness: Another factor affecting apparent brightness of stars is distance from Earth.
• Star Temperature and Color: A star's color indicates its temperature. Hots stars are blue, cooler stars are redder.
• Stellar Progression Stages: Stars evolve through distinct stages
• Fusion in Main-Sequence Stars: Fusion occurs in the core of main-sequence stars.
• Fusion in Red Giants/Supergiants: In red giants/supergiants, fusion occurs in different regions outside the core,
• Low-Mass Star Fate: Low-mass stars become white dwarfs.
• Intermediate-Mass Star Fate: Intermediate-mass stars like our Sun become white dwarfs after exhausting their fuel.
• High-Mass Star Fate: High-mass stars end in a supernova, possibly forming neutron stars or black holes.

Planetary Science

• Planetary Nebula: The expanding shell of gas that is cast off by dying stars.
• Supernova: A powerful explosion that occurs at the end of a high-mass star's life.
• Neutron Star: A very dense remnant of a massive star.
• Black Holes: Regions of spacetime with intense gravitational pull.
• Solar Nebula Hypothesis: The theory that the solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust.
• Solar System Formation: The initial cloud collapsed under gravity, forming a spinning disk, and denser regions in this disk formed the Sun and planets.
• Protoplanets: Early bodies that eventually formed planets.
• Rocky Planet Formation: Rocky planets formed closer to the sun from heavier elements.
• Gas Giant Formation: Gas giants formed farther away from the sun, accumulating lighter elements and gas.
• Protoearth: The early Earth was a molten body.
• Atmosphere Formation: The early atmosphere formed from outgassing and impacts.
• Early Atmosphere Composition: Primarily composed of gases like carbon dioxide and water vapour.
• Oxygen in Atmosphere: Photosynthetic organisms produced oxygen later.
• Ocean Formation: Volcanic activity and comets delivered water to the planet.
• Earth's Age: Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.
• Moon Formation: The leading theory is that the Moon formed from debris ejected during a collision between Earth and a Mars-sized object.
• Moon's Surface: The Moon's surface has light and dark regions.
• Moon's Rotation: The Moon's rotation is tidally locked to Earth, so only one side faces Earth.
• Asteroids: Rocky, airless remnants of early solar system.
• Comets: Icy bodies that orbit the Sun with a long tail.
• Meteoroids, Meteors, Meteorites: Small rocky bodies in space, their streak in Earth's atmosphere, and those that survive to hit the Earth.
• Asteroid Belt: A region of the solar system between Mars and Jupiter containing many asteroids.
• Kuiper Belt: A region beyond Neptune containing many icy objects.
• Oort Cloud: A hypothetical cloud of icy objects farther than the Kuiper Belt.

Rock Cycle

• Rock Types: Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic.
• Weathering: The process that breaks down rocks into smaller pieces.
• Igneous Rock Formation: Formed from the solidification of molten rock.
• Sedimentary Rock Formation: Formed from the accumulation and cementation of sediments.
• Metamorphic Rock Formation: Formed from existing rocks that have been changed by heat and pressure.
• Weathering Products: Dissolved mineral ions, loose grains.
• Sedimentary Types: Breccia, conglomerate, arkose, quartz sandstone.
• Evaporites: Sedimentary rocks formed from the evaporation of water.
• Limestone/Chert Formation: Formation from evaporites are different from limestone and chert.
• Coal Formation: From plant matter in swampy environments.
• Environmental Indicators from Rock Layers: Types of bedding, sorting, and cross-bedding indicate specific environments.

Test your knowledge on Earth's layers, the concepts of density, and the processes involved in convection. This quiz also covers the scientific method and the classification of stars based on their characteristics. Understand the relationship between temperature, luminosity, and solidification in Earth science.