Developmental Psychology
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What is the primary focus of developmental psychology?

  • How environmental events impact human development
  • The influence of genetics alone on behavior
  • The role of peer relationships in adolescence
  • The ways humans develop and change throughout their lifespan (correct)

    • Which statement best describes the concept of 'nurture' in the nature-nurture debate?

  • Maturation occurs independently of environment
  • Human behavior is exclusively influenced by genetic inheritance
  • Environmental factors shape human development (correct)
  • Innate skills and abilities are predetermined at birth

    • What does 'gene-environment correlation' refer to?

  • The idea that genes determine behavior without any environmental influence
  • The process by which genes and environment independently affect development
  • Genes influencing the environments individuals choose (correct)
  • The way environment modifies genetic expression

    • Which of the following best illustrates a critical period?

    <p>Language skills developing best before puberty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'sensitive periods' in human development?

    <p>Phases of development that are crucial yet not decisive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following concepts emphasizes the idea that humans start as a clean slate?

    <p>Empiricism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does 'maturation' play in development?

    <p>It indicates biologically-based changes that follow an orderly sequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are critical periods significant in human development?

    <p>Experiences during these times are essential for proper development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason why infants lose some neural connections as they grow?

    <p>Neural connections are pruned if not used or activated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory suggests that development occurs in discrete stages?

    <p>Stage theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which period does most major organ development take place in the embryo?

    <p>Embryonic period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are teratogens?

    <p>Environmental agents that can cause fetal harm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reflex helps ensure infants receive nourishment?

    <p>Rooting reflex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an effect associated with early puberty in males?

    <p>Increased positive social outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What memory system is the slowest to develop in infants?

    <p>Working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age range does menopause typically begin in women?

    <p>40s to 50s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of development is most noticeable during childhood according to stage-like theorists?

    <p>Cognitive development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is presbycusis?

    <p>Loss of the ability to hear high-frequency sounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of continuous theorists in developmental psychology?

    <p>They see development as gradual and steady.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory is primarily formed after the maturation of the hippocampus?

    <p>Explicit memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Maternal stress during pregnancy has been associated with which developmental disorder?

    <p>ADHD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)?

    <p>Physical deformities and a range of mental challenges.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of equilibration in cognitive development?

    <p>To balance assimilation and accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of Piaget's theory is characterized by the development of symbolic thought?

    <p>Preoperational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does centration refer to in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>Centering on one striking feature of an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what stage do children begin to understand conservation according to Piaget?

    <p>Concrete operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What criticism did Piaget face regarding his views on children's cognitive abilities?

    <p>He did not consider the role of culture and environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) emphasizes the importance of what?

    <p>Collaboration with skilled partners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of automatic processing refer to in cognitive development?

    <p>Efficient mental processes with less attention required</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does metacognition relate to cognitive development?

    <p>It assesses and regulates individual thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key element in forming attachment relationships according to attachment theory?

    <p>Perceived security from caregivers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bowlby's theory emphasizes which aspect of attachment?

    <p>Attachment behavior is prewired in humans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the formal operational stage is correct?

    <p>It allows for abstract and hypothetical thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the transactional model of child development emphasize?

    <p>The interaction between children and caregivers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are cognitive strategies in child development?

    <p>Gradually evolving problem-solving techniques.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the implications of processing speed in children's cognitive development?

    <p>Faster processing allows for improved problem-solving capabilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key environmental variable influencing the security of attachment in infants?

    <p>Mother's sensitivity to her baby's signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment style is characterized by individuals who often find it difficult to speak coherently about their attachment figures?

    <p>Unresolved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What trait do toddlers who are rough and easily distracted tend to carry into their teenage years?

    <p>Prone to mood swings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What parenting style is linked to children having low independence and susceptibility to stress?

    <p>Authoritarian parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style involves parents encouraging give-and-take with their children?

    <p>Authoritative parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Developments in which type of attachment can predict later difficulties in childhood and adolescence?

    <p>Disrupted attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key factor influences socialization throughout a person's life?

    <p>Broader social and economic context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children from which parenting style are more likely to struggle with substance abuse in adolescence?

    <p>Permissive parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does a parent's negative attitude towards their infant have on the child later in life?

    <p>Behavioural problems at age five</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of uninvolved parenting?

    <p>Prioritizing personal needs over child's needs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment type appears to show preoccupation with their parents?

    <p>Ambivalent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of higher use of physical discipline across cultures?

    <p>More aggression and anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does socialization predominantly teach individuals?

    <p>The rules and beliefs of their society</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential outcome for children who are raised in authoritative households?

    <p>Higher self-control and sociability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the process of sex typing in children?

    <p>Children acquire traits deemed appropriate for their gender through learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to understand gender constancy?

    <p>By age 6.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which moral reasoning stage involves understanding rules can change based on mutual agreement?

    <p>Morality of cooperation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of cognitive-developmental theories in moral development?

    <p>Moral reasoning and its progression through stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what aspect is particularly emphasized?

    <p>Cultural influences on development are important.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does theory of mind contribute to a child's development?

    <p>It helps in understanding others' mental states and perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the organized view children develop about themselves as they grow older?

    <p>Self-concept.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When do children typically start to categorize themselves based on age and gender?

    <p>During the toddler years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily influences the development of self-esteem during adolescence?

    <p>Peer comparisons and social interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary benefit of attachment behavior in human infants?

    <p>To serve as a safe base for exploration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does the initial preference for social stimuli, like faces, typically emerge in infants?

    <p>3 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best illustrates the term 'prosocial behavior'?

    <p>Helping a classmate with their homework.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What marks the beginning of separation anxiety in infants?

    <p>At six to seven months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main criticism of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

    <p>It focuses too heavily on verbal intelligence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cognitive social theory's approach to understanding moral behavior?

    <p>It emphasizes modeling and conditioning over reasoning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment style is characterized by a mixture of anger and the desire for closeness?

    <p>Anxious-ambivalent attachment style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment style may indicate behaviors where a child appears dazed or disoriented?

    <p>Disorganized attachment style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does gender stability refer to in children's understanding of gender?

    <p>Children's understanding that gender remains constant over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is crucial in determining an infant's attachment security?

    <p>Maternal sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what point do children typically start to exhibit moral reasoning based on social contracts?

    <p>At the postconventional stage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children with which attachment style are likely to be viewed as impulsive and disruptive in early school years?

    <p>Disorganized attachment style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of internal working models in attachment theory?

    <p>They represent expectations in close relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cultural factors influence attachment styles?

    <p>Some cultures promote independence while others promote interdependence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of an avoidant attachment style?

    <p>Indifference when the mother leaves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of temperament reflects a person's emotional reactivity and dispositions?

    <p>Temperament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a core hypothesis of attachment theory?

    <p>Caregiver rigidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may indicate a child's future social satisfaction and peer acceptance?

    <p>Security of attachment in infancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes children who show little reaction upon their mother's return?

    <p>Avoidant attachment style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the stage in Piaget's theory where children view morals as absolute?

    <p>Morality of constraint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of morality in Kohlberg's theory is characterized by following abstract, self-defined principles?

    <p>Postconventional morality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'perspective-taking' refer to in social cognition?

    <p>The ability to comprehend the viewpoints of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What parenting style is described as imposing few controls and allowing children to make their own decisions?

    <p>Permissive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychosocial stage is characterized by a struggle between establishing identity and facing identity confusion?

    <p>Identity vs identity confusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of development does a person primarily work on establishing committed relationships?

    <p>Intimacy vs isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'negative identity' mean in the context of social development?

    <p>Taking on a role society defines as bad for self-definition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of children is characterized as being ignored by their peers?

    <p>Neglected children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves modifying schemas to fit new experiences according to Piaget's theory?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the ceremonies that help transition an individual from childhood to adulthood?

    <p>Initiation rites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of 'socialisation' primarily concerned with?

    <p>Learning societal rules, values, and behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of generativity in Erikson's psychosocial model?

    <p>Concern for the next generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'separation anxiety' refer to in child development?

    <p>Distress experienced during separation from attachment figures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage in Erikson's model is characterized by developing a sense of competence or feelings of inadequacy?

    <p>Industry vs inferiority</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stage of cognitive development involves the understanding of conservation in children?

    <p>Concrete operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental task occurs from ages 1 to 2 years, focusing on independence?

    <p>Autonomy vs shame and doubt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which period of prenatal development is marked by the formation of major organs and systems?

    <p>Embryonic period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do negative identities refer to in Erikson's psychosocial stages?

    <p>Defining oneself through societal failures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'stagnation' refer to in Erikson's framework?

    <p>The feeling of unfulfillment and isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive concept explains how children adapt their thinking when they encounter new information?

    <p>Schema construction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what stage do individuals primarily reflect on their lives to assess their satisfaction or regret?

    <p>Integrity vs despair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of human development does the term 'myelination' refer to?

    <p>The process of forming protective nerve sheaths</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basis for attachment according to Harlow's experiments?

    <p>Security</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style is associated with high demands but low responsiveness?

    <p>Authoritarian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

    <p>The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of self-concept is most developed by adolescence?

    <p>Internal psychological processes understanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of moral development theories?

    <p>Balancing self and others' interests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment style is characterized by child distress upon caregiver separation?

    <p>Ambivalent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome associated with authoritative parenting?

    <p>Increased emotional adjustment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept refers to the mental models of attachment relationships in infants?

    <p>Internal working models</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kohlberg's postconventional level of moral reasoning is characterized by which of the following?

    <p>Applying self-defined abstract principles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of early attachment patterns on later life?

    <p>They form the basis of adult attachment styles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines gender socialisation?

    <p>The cultural and learning influences on behaviors considered appropriate for genders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is most associated with empathy in promoting prosocial behavior?

    <p>Understanding others' feelings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Knowledge gained through sensory experiences and motor activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'teratogen' refer to in developmental psychology?

    <p>A harmful agent causing fetal abnormalities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of Erikson's psychosocial stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt?

    <p>Children begin to walk and identify their independence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of attachment style is characterized by infants who display contradictory behaviors towards their caregiver?

    <p>Disorganized attachment style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage do adults experience generativity versus stagnation according to Erikson's theory?

    <p>Mid-adulthood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the psychological understanding that an individual's gender remains consistent over time?

    <p>Gender constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style emphasizes obedience and respect for authority without much explanation?

    <p>Authoritarian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of initiative versus guilt in Erikson's stages primarily focus on?

    <p>Testing independence and pursuing goals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of empathic distress in social interactions?

    <p>Understanding and sharing the feelings of another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does identity confusion refer to in Erikson's psychosocial theory?

    <p>Difficulty in establishing a coherent sense of self.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the conflict model of adolescence?

    <p>Normalcy of conflict and crisis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is most associated with high life satisfaction in later life?

    <p>Fulfillment and engagement earlier in life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the theory of gender stability convey about an individual's understanding of their gender?

    <p>Gender is fixed and does not change over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of attachment theory, what does contact comfort refer to?

    <p>The physical closeness that promotes bonding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stage involves older adults reflecting on their lives, resulting in either integrity or despair?

    <p>Integrity versus despair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the developmental task concept describe?

    <p>Challenges applicable to specific life stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the formal operational stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Ability to reason about abstract concepts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What criticism of Piaget's theory indicates that he may have underestimated children's abilities?

    <p>He assumed consistency in cognitive abilities across different domains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD), how can children enhance their understanding?

    <p>By collaborating with a skilled partner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'centration' refer to in Piaget's theory?

    <p>The tendency to focus on one striking feature of an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'accommodation' in Piaget's cognitive development theory?

    <p>Modifying schemas to fit new realities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the process of automatization in cognitive tasks?

    <p>Executing mental processes with less attention required</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of cognitive development involves the recognition of object permanence?

    <p>Sensorimotor stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does dementia primarily affect cognitive abilities?

    <p>Causes global disturbances in higher mental functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the concrete operational stage from other stages in Piaget’s theory?

    <p>Capability of mental manipulation of concrete objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is indicated by the term 'implicit memory'?

    <p>Memory expressed through behavior without conscious awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following concepts is described by the recognition that some properties of objects remain stable despite changes?

    <p>Conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'egocentrism' in children primarily refer to?

    <p>The focus on one's own point of view without considering others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which research method compares different age groups at a single time point to identify differences?

    <p>Cross-sectional study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'representational flexibility' in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>Ability to adapt representations in line with changing contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Developmental Psychology

    • Focuses on human development and change across the lifespan, from conception to death.
    • Applies scientific methods to create and validate theories about development.

    Nature and Nurture

    • Both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors influence human development; their roles are interdependent.
    • Nature suggests innate skills and perceptions; maturation follows a biological timetable.
    • Nurture posits that individuals start as a "clean slate" (tabula rasa) shaped by their environment.
    • Gene-environment correlations imply that genes can influence the choice of environments.

    Maturation

    • Biologically-based changes occur in a predictable sequence during development.
    • Critical experiences during sensitive periods are crucial for proper development, e.g., attachment in birds and language acquisition in humans.

    Critical and Sensitive Periods

    • Critical periods are times when the nervous system is highly receptive to specific learning experiences.
    • Sensitive periods are less decisive but important for certain developmental outcomes, such as language acquisition.
    • Neuron pruning eliminates unused neural connections, crucial for efficient cognitive development.

    Development Stages

    • Development occurs in stages, as suggested by stage theorists.
    • Continuous theories argue for gradual changes rather than distinct stages, emphasizing practice over sudden transformations.

    Physical Development

    • Prenatal Development: Stages include germinal (0-2 weeks), embryonic (3-8 weeks), and fetal (9 weeks to birth) with teratogens posing the highest risk during early pregnancy.
    • Major physical changes occur rapidly, especially muscular and organ development, by the end of the fetal period.

    Infancy

    • Infants are born with reflexes essential for survival (e.g., rooting and sucking reflexes).
    • Motor skills typically develop from head to toe.

    Childhood and Adolescence

    • Puberty: Marks the transition to reproductive capability; impacts vary by gender.
    • Aging processes include gradual declines in physical abilities and the onset of menopause, typically around age 51.

    Cognitive Development

    • Infants demonstrate early forms of memory (implicit and rudiments of explicit).
    • Piaget’s theory describes cognitive development in stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
    • Children learn through equilibration, maintaining a balance between assimilation and accommodation.

    Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

    • Emphasizes the importance of social interaction and collaboration in cognitive development.
    • Introduces the zone of proximal development (ZPD), illustrating effective learning through cooperative engagement with skilled partners.

    Attachment

    • Attachment is characterized by proximity, security, and stress upon separation.
    • Bowlby’s theory outlines a stages of attachment development from indiscriminate sociability to goal-coordinated partnerships.
    • Akin to imprinting, attachment behaviors evolve and serve evolutionary functions for safety and exploration.

    Individual Differences in Attachment Patterns

    • Patterns include secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, and disorganized attachment styles, influenced by early caregiving experiences.
    • Secure attachment correlates with positive development in later life, while insecure attachments can lead to issues such as behavioral problems.

    Implications and Long-term Importance of Attachment

    • Early attachment influences children's emotional and social well-being, shaping expectations of relationships.
    • Maternal sensitivity during infancy is crucial for fostering secure attachments, impacting a child’s temperament and later social functioning.### Attachment and Development
    • Infants with unresponsive mothers tend to form insecure attachment bonds, displaying higher levels of anger, fear, and avoidance.
    • Fatherly sensitivity is crucial in shaping the father-child relationship, though its role in attachment remains debated.
    • Negative maternal attitudes at six months predict behavioral issues in children by age five.
    • Temperamental traits such as distractibility and moodiness in toddlers are often carried into adolescence; lack of self-control in early years relates to risk-taking behaviors later.
    • Both hereditary traits and environmental selection influence a child's temperament.

    Patterns of Adult Attachment

    • Adult attachment reflects lifelong relationship dynamics and remains relatively stable, shaped by internal working models.
    • Four attachment styles:
      • Secure: Open communication about family relationships.
      • Ambivalent: Preoccupied with parental figures.
      • Avoidant: Downplays attachment importance and offers generalizations about parents.
      • Unresolved: Displays confusion about past attachment figures and sends mixed signals to own children.
    • Adult attachment patterns predict children's attachment styles with high accuracy.

    Impact of Early Attachment

    • Early attachment disruptions can lead to difficulties in childhood and adolescence, including personality disturbances and adjustment issues.
    • There are significant cultural variations in what is considered a desirable temperament, affecting parenting styles and socialization practices.

    Socialization Process

    • Socialization helps children learn their society's rules, beliefs, and behaviors.
    • Parenting quality significantly influences children's emotional and social development over time.
    • The approach parents take (authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, uninvolved) shapes children's behavioral outcomes.

    Parenting Styles

    • Authoritarian: Emphasizes obedience, often leading to low self-esteem and vulnerability in children.
    • Permissive: Lacks controls, resulting in impulsivity and substance abuse issues.
    • Authoritative: Balances standards with respect for children's perspectives, fostering independence and competence.
    • Uninvolved: Prioritizes personal needs over children, leading to aggression and low self-esteem in offspring.
    • Higher paternal involvement correlates positively with children's self-esteem.

    Gender Socialization

    • Differential treatment by gender starts early, prescribing behaviors considered appropriate for boys and girls.
    • Gender identity emerges around age two, stability is understood in early childhood, and constancy develops later.
    • Gender schemas organize cultural definitions and traits associated with each sex.

    Social Cognition Development

    • Social cognition begins with recognizing oneself as distinct and evolves through childhood into a complex self-concept by adolescence.
    • Infants recognize reciprocal social interactions; by three months, they associate behaviors—smiling elicits playful responses, while crying leads to comfort.
    • Understanding others progresses from simple attributes to perspective-taking and theory of mind, which encompasses recognizing beliefs and feelings in oneself and others.

    Moral Development Theories

    • Cognitive-developmental theories focus on moral reasoning, notably Piaget's stages of morality:
      • Morality of constraint (absolute morals before age 9).
      • Morality of cooperation (morals change based on consensus).
      • Kohlberg's levels: Preconventional (avoidance of punishment), Conventional (conformity to social rules), Postconventional (abstract principles).
    • Criticisms of Kohlberg's theory include cultural and gender biases, low correlation with moral behavior, and confounding with intelligence.

    Life Span Development and Erikson’s Theory

    • Erikson's stages encompass psychosocial challenges, integrating biology and culture.
    • Identity formation is crucial, influenced by developmental tasks across the lifespan.
    • Stages include trust vs. mistrust (infancy), autonomy vs. shame (toddlerhood), initiative vs. guilt (preschool), industry vs. inferiority (school-age), identity vs. confusion (adolescence), intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood), generativity vs. stagnation (mid-adulthood), and integrity vs. despair (old age).

    Cognitive Development

    • Cognitive development theory suggests children build knowledge through experience via assimilation and accommodation.
    • Piaget outlines four stages: sensorimotor (perception and action), preoperational (symbolic thought), concrete operational (reversible operations), and formal operational (abstract reasoning).
    • Vygotsky emphasizes social interaction and cooperative learning in cognitive development, introducing the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to denote effective learning environments.

    Key Concepts

    • Recognize the impact of prenatal factors and teratogens on development.
    • Developmental psychology analyzes nature vs. nurture, early experiences, and stage-based vs. continuous growth.
    • Cognitive and physical development are intertwined, with individual differences emerging as children grow.### Cognitive Development Theories
    • Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7-12; children mentally manipulate concrete objects and understand reversibility.
    • Formal Operational Stage: Begins at age 12-15; ability to think abstractly and handle complex ideas beyond concrete objects.
    • Preoperational Stage: Ages 2-7; characterized by symbolic thought but limited in logical reasoning.

    Memory and Learning

    • Explicit Memory: Conscious recollection of facts and events.
    • Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory expressed through behavior.
    • Metacognition: Awareness of one's own cognitive processes, including how to remember or learn.
    • Schema: Organized patterns of knowledge that help in learning new information.

    Psychological Development Stages

    • Erikson's Psychosocial Stages:
      • Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
      • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood)
      • Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood)
      • Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood)
      • Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
      • Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
      • Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
      • Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)

    Social and Emotional Development

    • Attachment Styles:
      • Secure attachment: comfort with closeness.
      • Avoidant attachment: indifferent upon reunion.
      • Ambivalent attachment: seeking closeness while showing distress.
      • Disorganized attachment: contradictory behavior towards attachment figures.
    • Separation Anxiety: Common distress during separation from caregivers, peaking in the second year of life.
    • Socialisation: Lifelong process involving the learning of societal norms, values, and behaviors, heavily influenced by parenting styles such as authoritative or authoritarian.

    Gender Development

    • Gender Schemas: Mental frameworks linking psychological traits with gender, influenced by culture and personal experiences.
    • Gender Identity: Internal sense of one's gender, which can vary, including non-binary or agender identities.
    • Gender Constancy: Understanding that gender remains fixed despite changes in appearance or behavior.

    Moral Development

    • Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning:
      • Preconventional Morality: Following rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards.
      • Conventional Morality: Defining right and wrong based on societal standards.
      • Postconventional Morality: Adhering to self-defined, abstract principles.
    • Empathy: A crucial factor in motivating prosocial behavior through understanding others' experiences.

    Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

    • Cross-Sectional Studies: Comparing different-aged groups at one point in time to detect differences.
    • Longitudinal Studies: Following the same individuals over time to observe changes and developments.
    • Sequential Studies: Studying multiple cohorts over time to understand developmental trends.

    Other Notable Concepts

    • Critical Period: A phase of heightened sensitivity to certain types of learning that shape future development.
    • Teratogens: Harmful agents causing fetal abnormalities due to maternal exposure during pregnancy.
    • Working Memory: Short-term memory space for retrieving and manipulating information.
    • Theory of Mind: Understanding that others have their own beliefs and feelings, essential for social cognition.

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    Description

    This quiz explores key concepts in developmental psychology, such as the nature-nurture debate, gene-environment correlation, and critical and sensitive periods in human development. Test your understanding of how these concepts contribute to our knowledge of human growth and learning.

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