Depressive Disorders: Causes and Treatments

A psychological theory suggesting that negative events, interpreted through a lens of stable, global, and negative causal attributions, can contribute to depressive symptoms.

A cognitive style where individuals tend to dwell on negative thoughts and feelings, intensifying depressive symptoms.

A cognitive model that highlights three interconnected negative thought patterns about oneself, the world, and the future, contributing to depression.

Cognitive distortions or errors in thinking that amplify negative thoughts and perpetuate depressive symptoms.

The belief that relationships are essential for well-being and that social rejection can lead to depression.

A model suggesting that individuals with a high need for approval and sensitivity to rejection may engage in excessive reassurance seeking, leading to social withdrawal and increased depression.

Reduced ability to cope with stress and lowered immune response, leading to increased susceptibility to illness.

The idea that perceived lack of control over stressors can contribute to depression.

This theory suggests that depression develops when an individual experiences uncontrollable negative events, leading them to believe they have no power to change their situation.

A key element of learned helplessness theory. The "3 P's" refer to a pessimistic thinking style that is characterized by permanent, pervasive, and personal attributions for negative events. For example, "It's my fault and it will never change".

This theory suggests that depression arises from negative thought patterns and how we interpret events. It emphasizes the role of cognition and our tendency to engage in negative self-talk and catastrophic thinking.

It involves directly changing behaviors to increase positive experiences and reduce negative ones. It's about becoming more active and engaging in rewarding activities.

A form of behavioral therapy that uses rewards to reinforce desired behaviors. It helps individuals learn new skills and increase motivation.

One of the key elements of optimistic cognitive style that is associated with positive outcomes in various aspects of life. It involves seeing challenges as temporary, specific, and external factors.

In contrast to the "3 P's" of pessimistic style, optimistic attributional style involves attributing negative events factors that are temporary, specific, and external. For example, "this is just a temporary setback, and it's not my fault"

This study found that people who tended to think pessimistically at exam time were more likely to experience depression if they failed the exam.

A connection in the body between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands which is responsible for stress response.

A hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress. It can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitters like serotonin.

People with major depressive disorder have higher levels of this stress hormone, which can be linked to inflammation and reduced neurotransmitter activity.

This brain region is involved in memory, learning, and the regulation of emotions. It is smaller in people with depression, which may explain their difficulties with memory and emotions.

This brain region is responsible for processing emotions, especially negative ones. It is larger and more active in individuals with depression, possibly contributing to overthinking and negative thoughts.

This region is involved in attention, motivation, and goal setting. It can be affected in depression, leading to problems with focus and motivation.

They are white blood cells that fight infections. People with depression often have a lower number of them which can weaken their immune system.

These small proteins cause inflammation throughout the body. They are often produced at higher levels in people with depression, which can contribute to fatigue and other symptoms.

A mood disorder marked by shifts between periods of elevated mood (mania or hypomania) and depression.

Genetic factors play a significant role in the development of bipolar disorder, with identical twins having a higher concordance rate than fraternal twins.

Brain abnormalities, particularly in areas involved in mood regulation like the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum, have been implicated in bipolar disorder.

Medications like lithium, anti-seizure drugs, and atypical antipsychotics are commonly used to stabilize mood and reduce the frequency of manic and depressive episodes.

Psychotherapy plays a complementary role in treatment, helping individuals develop coping skills, manage stress, and enhance their understanding of their disorder.

A milder form of bipolar disorder, with shorter periods of hypomania and depression that don't meet the criteria for full-blown manic or depressive episodes.

Involves an abnormally elevated mood, increased energy and activity, and at least 3 other symptoms like grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, pressured speech, racing thoughts, distractibility, psychomotor agitation, or risky behaviors.

A less extreme form of mania, characterized by elevated mood, increased energy, and activity levels, but without the severe impairments seen in mania.

A period of prolonged sadness, loss of interest, and energy, accompanied by physical and cognitive changes.

A medication used to treat bipolar disorder, affecting mood stabilization and reducing the frequency and severity of manic and depressive episodes.

An eating disorder characterized by a refusal to maintain a healthy body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image. It can manifest in restricting food intake or engaging in binge-eating and purging behaviors.

An eating disorder marked by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors like purging (vomiting, laxatives) to prevent weight gain. It involves a preoccupation with body shape and weight.

An eating disorder involving recurrent episodes of binge eating without compensatory behaviors like purging or excessive exercise. It is characterized by a sense of lack of control during eating and feelings of shame and guilt afterwards.

A category used in the DSM-5-TR for eating disorders that don't meet the full criteria for anorexia, bulimia, or binge eating disorder. They involve partial-syndrome eating disturbances.

The cessation of menstrual periods, often experienced by individuals with anorexia nervosa.

Fine, downy hair that grows on the body, particularly in individuals with anorexia nervosa, as a result of malnutrition.

A syrup made from the root of the ipecac plant, used to induce vomiting, often misused in cases of bulimia.

An imbalance in the body's electrolytes (sodium, potassium, etc.) which can occur due to purging behaviors in bulimia and fluid loss in anorexia nervosa.

A distorted perception of one's body size and shape, often leading to an unhealthy focus on weight and appearance.

The tendency to focus excessively on one's physical appearance, often leading to negative self-evaluation and body dissatisfaction.

A type of psychotherapy that emphasizes identifying and changing negative thoughts and behaviors associated with eating disorders.

A medication commonly used to treat bulimia nervosa, often used alongside therapy to manage symptoms.

A society where men and 'masculine' qualities hold more value than women and 'feminine' qualities.

A system emphasizing the buying of consumer goods and profit making.

Cultural influences, like media and advertising, can shape how people perceive their bodies and create unrealistic beauty standards, potentially contributing to eating disorders.

A theory suggesting that Western culture teaches women to view themselves through the eyes of others, focusing on their appearance, which can lead to self-objectification.

A study that found a positive correlation between exposure to media and eating disorder symptoms.

A study that investigated the impact of self-objectification on women's mental resources and cognitive performance.

Not everyone exposed to cultural pressures develops eating disorders, suggesting that individual differences and other factors play a role.

This personality disorder is characterized by suspicion and mistrust of others, interpreting their motives as malevolent. Individuals with this disorder may believe they are being exploited, harmed, or deceived, leading to difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships.

This personality disorder involves social detachment and a limited range of emotional expression. Individuals with this disorder may prefer solitary activities and lack interest in close relationships. They often appear detached, cold, and aloof.

This personality disorder is characterized by odd and eccentric thinking and behavior. Individuals with this disorder may have unusual beliefs or perceptions, difficulty in social situations, and struggle to communicate clearly. They may have difficulty understanding and relating to others.

This personality disorder features a pattern of excessive emotionality and a need for attention. Individuals with this disorder may be dramatic, seductive, and often seek to be the center of attention. They tend to be self-centered and lack empathy for others.

This personality disorder involves a grandiose sense of self-importance and a need for admiration. Individuals with this disorder have a strong sense of entitlement, lack empathy, and may exploit others to achieve their goals. They crave validation and often have difficulty handling criticism.

This personality disorder is characterized by a pattern of disregard for social rules and the rights of others. Individuals with this disorder may engage in criminal behavior, have difficulty with commitments, and lack remorse for their actions.

This personality disorder is marked by instability in relationships, identity, and emotions. Individuals with this disorder may experience intense fear of abandonment, engage in impulsive behaviors, and struggle to control their emotions. They may have a history of self-harm and suicidal thoughts or behaviors.

This personality disorder involves a preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. Individuals with this disorder are often rigid, inflexible, and have difficulty with delegating tasks. They may be excessively devoted to work and have difficulty relaxing or enjoying leisure activities.

A personality disorder characterized by a deep fear of criticism and rejection, leading to social isolation and avoidance of close relationships. Individuals with this disorder may seem aloof and unassertive, waiting for others to initiate contact.

Individuals with Dependent Personality Disorder rely heavily on others for guidance, reassurance, and support to the point of feeling helpless when alone. They prioritize maintaining close relationships even if it means sacrificing their own needs and desires.

This model, used in the DSM-5-TR, assesses personality disorders by looking at five broad trait domains (Negative affectivity, Detachment, Antagonism, Disinhibition, Psychoticism) and determining if a specified personality disorder (like Avoidant, Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Schizoid, Schizotypal) is also present.

The DSM-5-TR Alternative Model specifies six specific personality disorders: Avoidant, Antisocial, Borderline, Schizotypal, Schizoid, and Paranoid. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of individual cases.

This model is different from the previous approach to personality disorders, which relied on categorical diagnoses. It considers both traits and specific disorders to provide a more comprehensive understanding of personality functioning.

One of the five broad trait domains used in the DSM-5-TR's alternative model, characterizing individuals prone to negative emotions, such as anxiety, depression, and vulnerability.

One of the five broad trait domains in the DSM-5-TR, involving emotional detachment, withdrawal from social situations, and a lack of interest in building relationships.

ADHD involves two main symptom clusters: Inattention (difficulty focusing and staying on task) and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity (excessive energy, restlessness, and difficulty controlling actions).

There are three subtypes of ADHD: Combined presentation (inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms), Predominantly inattentive presentation (primarily inattention), and Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation (primarily hyperactivity/impulsivity).

ADHD symptoms must be present before age 12, with many continuing into adulthood. It affects about 7-10% of children, with boys being more likely to be diagnosed.

ADHD can negatively impact academic performance, making learning difficult. There's a higher risk of developing learning disabilities and communication problems.

ADHD is strongly influenced by genetics, with siblings of those with ADHD being more likely to have it. It also involves neurological factors, particularly in regions like the prefrontal cortex, striatum, and cerebellum.

Stimulant medications like Ritalin and Adderall are widely used to treat ADHD. They improve focus, behavior, and mood in many cases.

While stimulants are effective, some concerns exist about their overuse. It's essential to consider individual needs and potential side effects.

Barkley's "Behavior Disinhibition Disorder" focuses on impulsivity as a core symptom. It highlights the importance of goal-directed persistence and differentiates subtypes based on specific behavioral patterns.

Norepinephrine-related medications can help reduce the frequency and severity of tics by affecting brain circuits involved in movement control. They may also enhance cognitive function by boosting attention and focus.

Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is an antidepressant that influences dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with motivation, reward, and attention. It can help with ADHD symptoms by boosting executive functions and improving focus.

Play is essential for developing crucial brain functions. It enhances problem-solving skills, improves social interaction, and promotes creativity and emotional regulation.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques can empower parents and teachers to change their approach to reward and punishment. By reinforcing desired behaviors like attention and goal-directedness, and diminishing impulsive or hyperactive actions, CBT can effectively reduce ADHD symptoms.

Parent education programs can provide valuable insights into operant conditioning, a method of learning through rewards and consequences. This understanding can help parents effectively implement behavior management techniques for their child with ADHD.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) involves significant difficulties in social interaction and communication, as well as repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities. It often begins early in childhood and is a lifelong condition.

ASD is often accompanied by intellectual disability, which can affect a person's ability to learn and adapt to their environment. However, ASD encompasses a wide range of functioning, and many individuals with ASD have average or above average intelligence.

The causes of ASD are complex and multifaceted. While no reputable research links vaccines to ASD, there is evidence suggesting a role for genetics, prenatal factors, and neurological differences. It's important to note that ASD is a heterogeneous disorder with various contributing factors.

A mental disorder characterized by significant disruptions in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior, often involving hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. It is a complex condition with varying degrees of severity.

These reflect a disconnect from reality, such as hearing voices, seeing things that aren't there, or having fixed false beliefs that can't be reasoned with.

A symptom of schizophrenia where thoughts jump from one topic to another without a clear connection. It causes speech to be incoherent and difficult to follow.

A category of symptoms in schizophrenia that involve a lack of motivation, emotion, and speech. People with negative symptoms may appear withdrawn, expressionless, and apathetic.

This theory suggests that people with schizophrenia may drift to lower social classes due to their symptoms, rather than social class causing the condition.

This is the average age when schizophrenia symptoms first appear for males. It highlights the earlier onset of the condition in men compared to women.

This is the average age when schizophrenia symptoms first appear for females. It suggests a slightly later onset in women compared to men.

Schizophrenia can have profound impacts on daily life, affecting relationships, work, education, and overall functioning.

This region is involved in attention, motivation, and goal setting. It can be affected in depression, leading to problems with focus and motivation.

This region is involved in memory, learning, and the regulation of emotions. It is smaller in people with depression, which may explain their difficulties with memory and emotions.

This hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress. It can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitters like serotonin.

A mood disorder marked by shifts between periods of elevated mood (mania or hypomania) and depression.

A milder form of bipolar disorder, with shorter periods of hypomania and depression that don't meet the criteria for full-blown manic or depressive episodes.

A false belief that is firmly held despite evidence to the contrary. Often resistant to logic or reason.

A false perception of reality, often involving senses. Common examples include hearing voices (auditory) or seeing things that aren't there (visual).

A period of intense psychotic symptoms that usually has an identifiable trigger and is often time-limited.

A chronic and persistent state of psychosis, often with a gradual onset and long-term impact.

The theory that people with schizophrenia may drift into lower social classes due to their symptoms, rather than social class being a causal factor in the illness.

The average age when schizophrenia symptoms first appear in females.

The average age when schizophrenia symptoms first appear in males.

A type of hallucination where a person hears voices or other sounds that are not actually there.

A type of hallucination where a person sees things that aren't actually there.

A fixed false belief that is not based on reality, often a central feature of psychotic disorders.

A mental disorder characterized by disruptions in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior, often involving hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Sensory experiences that are not real, such as hearing voices or seeing things that aren't there.

A symptom of schizophrenia characterized by fragmented, incoherent speech, where thoughts jump between unrelated topics.

A symptom of schizophrenia characterized by a lack of motivation, emotions, and speech.

The migration of neurons from the inner brain layers to the outer brain areas, a crucial process during the second trimester of pregnancy.

The theory that people with schizophrenia may be more likely to be born in the spring because of reduced prenatal sunlight exposure and low vitamin D levels.