Critical Thinking Concepts

Questions and Answers

What is critical thinking?

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

What do peer reviewers evaluate?

A research article's theory, originality, and accuracy.

What is a theory?

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. Signup and view all the answers

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term falsifiable mean?

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment. Signup and view all the answers

What is an operational definition?

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. Signup and view all the answers

What is replication in research?

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. Signup and view all the answers

What does naturalistic observation involve?

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Signup and view all the answers

What is social desirability bias?

Bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes. Signup and view all the answers

What is a correlation coefficient?

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, from -1.00 to +1.00. Signup and view all the answers

What is a scatterplot?

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, where the slope indicates the direction of the relationship. Signup and view all the answers

What is an independent variable in an experiment?

The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Signup and view all the answers

What is the placebo effect?

Experimental results caused by expectations alone. Signup and view all the answers

What is validity in research?

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. Signup and view all the answers

What is standard deviation?

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. Signup and view all the answers

What is descriptive statistics?

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Signup and view all the answers

What does inferential statistics allow researchers to do?

Generalize to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. Signup and view all the answers

What is effect size?

The strength of the relationship between two variables. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Critical Thinking Concepts

Critical Thinking: An analytical thought process that questions assumptions, evaluates sources, identifies biases, scrutinizes evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Hindsight Bias: The inclination to believe, after an event, that one would have predicted the outcome, also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.
Peer Reviewers: Experts in research who assess the quality and validity of a study's theory, originality, and accuracy.

Research Methodology Terms

Theory: A comprehensive explanation that organizes observations and makes predictions about behaviors or events.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction derived from a theory.
Falsifiable: The possibility of disproving an idea, hypothesis, or theory through observation or experimentation.
Operational Definition: A precise description of how variables are measured or defined in a study; for example, defining intelligence through test scores.

Research Techniques

Replication: Repeating a study with different participants to verify original findings.
Case Study: An in-depth investigation of a single individual or group, aiming to uncover universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in real-life settings without manipulation.
Survey: Gathering self-reported behaviors or attitudes from a representative sample through questionnaires.

Biases in Research

Social Desirability Bias: Tendency of respondents to answer in a manner they believe is socially acceptable rather than their true feelings.
Self-Report Bias: Inaccuracies in reporting one’s behavior.
Sampling Bias: A flawed sampling technique leading to an unrepresentative sample.
Random Sample: A sample representative of the population, where every individual has an equal chance of selection.

Correlation and Statistical Concepts

Correlation: A measure reflecting how closely two variables vary together; does not imply causation.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00, indicating the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.
Scatterplot: A graphical representation illustrating the relationship between two variables, depicting correlation strength and direction.

Experimental Design

Experiment: A research method that manipulates one or more variables to observe effects on behavior or mental processes.
Experimental Group: Participants exposed to the treatment in an experiment.
Control Group: Participants not exposed to the treatment; used for comparison against the experimental group.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to groups randomly to minimize preexisting differences.

Participant Awareness Procedures

Single-Blind Procedure: Participants are unaware of whether they receive the treatment or placebo, reducing bias.
Double-Blind Procedure: Both participants and researchers are unaware of who receives the treatment, commonly used to avoid experimenter bias.
Placebo Effect: Changes in participants' behavior due to their expectations rather than actual treatment.

Variables in Research

Independent Variable: The factor manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect.
Dependent Variable: The outcome measured in an experiment, expected to change in response to the independent variable.
Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that may influence study results unintentionally, leading to bias.

Research Integrity and Validity

Validity: The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it claims to.
Informed Consent: Providing potential participants with clear information about a study before they agree to participate.
Debriefing: Explanation of the study's purpose and any deceptions to participants after its completion.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive Statistics: Techniques for summarizing and describing data characteristics using central tendency measures.
Histogram: A bar graph representing frequency distributions of data.
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a data set.
Mean: The average score in a distribution.
Median: The middle value that separates a data set into two equal halves.

Distribution and Variability

Skewed Distribution: A representation where data lacks symmetry around the average.
Range: The difference between highest and lowest scores in a dataset.
Standard Deviation: A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
Normal Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution describing many types of data.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics: Techniques for inferring population characteristics from sample data.
Meta-Analysis: Analyzing results from multiple studies to reach overall conclusions.
Statistical Significance: The likelihood that a result occurred by chance; lower probability indicates a stronger result.
Effect Size: A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables, where larger sizes indicate a more explainable outcome.

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Test your understanding of critical thinking concepts and biases with this quiz. Explore terms like critical thinking, hindsight bias, and more. Suitable for anyone looking to deepen their analytical skills.