Cognitive Psychology: History and Core Concepts

• Cognitive Psychology is the study of the mind and mental processes which include perception, attention, memory, language, and decision-making

Basic Mental Processes

• Perception was studied by Ernst Weber
• Attention was addressed by Donald Broadbent
• Memory was investigated by Herman Ebbinghaus

Higher Mental Processes

• Knowledge
• Imagery
• Language investigated by Noah Chomsky
• Problem-solving
• Reasoning
• Decision-making studied by Franciscus Donders

Analytic Introspection (Wilhelm Wundt)

• Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of experimental psychology who pioneered analytic introspection to study the contents of consciousness.
• Analytic Introspection involves training participants to describe conscious experiences in a detailed and systematic manner.
• Wundt aimed to break down complex mental processes into simpler components, similar to analyzing substances into their elements.
• Wundt's approach aligned with structuralism, which identifies the structure of the mind by breaking down consciousness into elements like sensations, feelings, and images.
• Analytic introspection was criticized for being subjective and unreliable because the results depended on individuals' reports, which could vary widely.

Introspection (William James)

• William James took a holistic view of introspection, focusing on the stream of consciousness, which referred to the flow of thoughts and mental processes.
• James focus was on understanding the flow and functions of mental states rather than isolating basic elements of consciousness.
• Stream of Consciousness describes consciousness as not static but a flowing, dynamic process that is constantly shifting and adapting with unclear boundaries between thoughts.
• James is considered a leading figure in the development of functionalism, which emphasized the functions of mental processes to help individuals adapt to their environment.
• James' focus on subjective experiences lacked the precise, controlled methods that would later be developed in cognitive psychology.

Decision Making (Franciscus Donders)

• Franciscus Donders was a Dutch physiologist who studied decision making and reaction times.
• Donders' reaction time paradigm involved measuring the time the brain takes to make decisions.
• Subtractive Method is a technique used to infer cognitive processes in decision making where participants press a button when they saw a light (simple reaction time).
• Participants will press a button only with a red light (choice reaction time).
• The time difference between tasks allowed Donders to infer the time it took to make a decision.
• Donders demonstrated decision-making involves measurable cognitive delays, and reaction time could indirectly measure mental processing.
• The subtraction method has limitations in isolating specific mental operations when measuring cognitive processes.

Memory (Herman Ebbinghaus)

• Herman Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who studied memory and conducted experiments on how information is learned, retained, and forgotten.
• Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve describes how information is forgotten over time stating memory retention drops rapidly after learning, but the slowing of forgetting happens steadily.
• Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables (e.g., "DAX," "BOK," "VIF") to study memory freely from prior associations, ensuring the results reflect cognitive processes.
• The Learning Curve shows that the more times a person reviews information, the faster they will learn and recall it, with diminishing returns as the number of repetitions increases.
• Ebbinghaus's research showed that memory involves both the initial learning process and the forgetting process where memory retention is not static but is affected by time and repetition.

Perception (Ernst Weber)

• Ernst Weber was a German physician and experimental psychologist who studied sensory perception and how physical stimuli are perceived .
• Weber's Law quantifies the relationship between the magnitude of a stimulus and the just noticeable difference (JND).
• Weber's Law states that the smallest detectable difference in a stimulus (the just noticeable difference, or JND) is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus.
• The ability to detect a difference in weight is more easily noticeable when comparing lighter weights than heavier ones.
• Weber's Law is Mathematically expressed as: ΔΙ/Ι=k where ΔΙ is the difference threshold (the JND), I is the initial stimulus intensity, and k is a constant specific to the type of stimulus.
• Weber's work showed that perception is not just a direct reflection of the physical world but is influenced by the context in which stimuli are presented, showing the subjective nature of perception.

Focus of Cognitive Psychology

• Behavior (expression of the mind).
• Brain (physical basis of the mind).

Historical Development

• 1600s: Modern physics beginnings
• 1700s: Modern chemistry beginnings
• 1800s: Modern cognitive psychology beginnings
• Delayed Study of the Mind happened due to the difficulty in empirically measuring mental processes

Behaviorism (Early 1900s)

• The core idea of behaviorism is Focus on observable behavior, not the unobservable mind.
• Key Figures
  • Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning (e.g., dogs salivating to a metronome).
  • John Watson performed the Little Albert experiment (learned fear through conditioning).
  • B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment shaping behavior).
• Tools used in behaviorism include: Skinner box for controlled experiments.

Decline of Behaviorism

• Limitations: Behaviorism could not explain complex behaviors (e.g., mental maps in rats).
• Linguistics: Noam Chomsky argued language learning is partly innate (poverty of stimulus argument).
• Computers: Inspired the mind-as-information-processor model.

Cognitive Psychology Emergence (1950s-1960s)

• Information Processing Model: Mind as a system transforming sensory input into behavior with example contributions from:
  • Donald Broadbent: Attention as a filter.
  • Saul Sternberg: Memory retrieval and reaction time studies.
• First Cognitive Psychology Textbook was Published in 1967.

Cognitive Neuroscience Basics

• Neurons are the basic units of brain function.
• Structure of Neurons:
  • Dendrites (input)
  • Axon (output)
  • Synapse (communication gap).
• Signal Transmission between Neurons:
  • Electrical (action potentials)
  • Chemical (neurotransmitters).

Neural Representation in Neurons

• Retinal Cells: Represent light intensity.
• Retinal Ganglion Cells: Represent light differences (center-surround organization).
• Simple Cells in Visual Cortex: Represent edge orientation.

Key Concepts in Neural Representation

• Receptive Field: The sensory area a neuron responds to (e.g., retinal location for ganglion cells).
• Tuning Curve: Describes how a neuron's response varies with stimulus properties (e.g., orientation for simple cells).

Summary

• Cognitive psychology evolved from early introspection and behaviorism to a focus on mental processes and neural mechanisms.
• Behaviorism emphasized observable behavior but was limited in explaining complex cognition.
• Cognitive psychology's rise: was fueled by advances in linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience.
• Cognitive neuroscience: explores how neural activity underlies mental processes using tools like receptive fields and tuning curves to understand neural representation.

Core Principles of Behaviorism

• Focus on Observable Behavior: Behaviorism emphasizes studying observable actions and responses rather than internal mental states The mind is considered a "black box" that cannot be directly studied.
• Environment Shapes Behavior: Behaviorists believe that behavior is learned through interactions with the environment and that individuals are born as "blank slates" (tabula rasa) and behavior is acquired through conditioning.
• Rejection of Introspection: Behaviorism rejects subjective methods like introspection (e.g., Wundt's analytic introspection) due to lacking reproducibility.
• Objective Measurement: Behaviorists aim to measure behavior quantitatively and scientifically, using controlled experiments.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

• Classical Conditioning: a neutral stimulus(e.g.,ametronome)could elicit a reflexive response (e.g.,salivation) if paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food).
• Dogs naturally salivate when presented with food.
• Pavlov paired the sound of a metronome with food.
• Over time, the dogs salivated at the sound of the metronome alone.
• Learning occurs through association between stimuli.

John B. Watson (1878–1958)

• Founder of Behaviorism: Watson believed that psychology should focus solely on observable behavior and rejection of the mind study.
• Watson conditioned a baby (Albert) to fear a white rat by pairing the rat with a loud, and frightening noise.
• Over time, Albert generalized his fear to other white, furry objects (e.g., a rabbit, a fur coat).
• Emotions and behaviors are learned through conditioning.

B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)

• Operant Conditioning:Skinner focused on how behavior is shaped by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).
• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., giving food for pressing a lever).
• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., delivering an electric shock for pressing a lever).
• Skinner Box: where animals (e.g., rats or pigeons) learn to perform behaviors (e.g., pressing a lever) to receive rewards or avoid punishments and how complex behaviors could be shaped through gradual reinforcement.

Types of Learning in Behaviorism

• Definition: Learning through association between two stimuli

Components

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food)
• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to the US (e.g., salivation).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the US (e.g., metronome).
• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to the metronome). Example: Fear of dogs after being bitten (dog = CS, bite = US, fear = CR):

Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)

• Learning occurs through consequences of behavior such as reinforcement which increases a behavior and components: - Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior). - Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping an alarm by waking up).
• Punishment which Decreases behavior and components: - Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., scolding for misbehavior).
  • Negative Punishment: Removing apl easant stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy for misbehavior).
• A child cleans their room to receive praise is an example of positive reinforcement.

Strengths Of Behaviorism

• Scientific Rigor: Behaviorism introduced objective and measurable methods to psychology and moving away from subjective introspection.
• Practical Applications are widely used in:
  • Education with reinforcement systems (e.g., gold stars for good work).
  • Therapy with Behavior modification techniques (e.g., treating phobias through systematic desensitization).
• Animal Training with behaviors shaped through reinforcement.
• The emphasis on Observable Behavior Provided a clear framework for studying and modifying behavior.

Limitations Of Behaviorism

• Neglect of Mental Processes where Behaviorism ignores internal states like thoughts, emotions, and motivations, which are central in understanding human behavior.
• Overemphasis on Environment where Behaviorism underestimates the role of biology, genetics, and innate factors in shaping behavior.
• Inability to Explain Complex Behaviors: Behaviorism struggles to account for:
  • Language Acquisition where Noam Chomsky argued that language learning cannot be fully explained by conditioning
  • (poverty of stimulus argument).
  • Cognitive Maps with Edward Tolman showing that rats form mental maps of mazes, suggesting internal representations.
• Ethical Concerns: Experiments like Little Albert raised ethical questions about manipulating human behavior.

Decline of Behaviorism

• Behaviorism declined (1950s–1960s) as psychologists focus on mental processes and information processing with key factors: Linguistics (Chomsky's critique of Skinner's), verbal behavior theory, computers inspiring the mind-as-information-processor model, and neuroscience advances in understanding brain function.
• Integration with Cognitive Psychology where modern psychology combines behaviorist principles (e.g., conditioning) with cognitive approaches to provide a more comprehension behavior understanding.

Legacy of Behaviorism

• Behavioral influences: Behaviorism laid the foundation for experimental psychology and applied behavior analysis (ABA).
• Behaviorism applications: in education, therapy, animal training, and organizational behavior management.
• Its enduring concepts of classical and operant Conditioning remains a learning theory cornerstone.
• Behaviorism revolutionized psychology by emphasizing objectivity and measurable behavior its limitations led to the cognitive psychology rise and integrates internal mental with observable behavior processes
• Cognitive neuroscience: investigates the mind by examining both behavior and studying behavior, Cognitive Brain which reveals output physical neuroscience mechanisms Cognitive neuroscience investigates and reveals functions Cognitive cognitive

Basic Neuroscience Concepts (Neurons and Neural Representation)

• Neurons: the fundamental units of brain function. The brain contains over 100 billion neurons, and cognitive all functions arise from neural activity.
• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
• Axon: Sends signals to other neurons.
• Synapse: the small gap between neurons where signals are transmitted

Neural Communication

• Neurons: transmit information via electrical signals

Resting Potential

• a neuron has a negative charge inside relative to the outside, caused by ions (mainly sodium and potassium) that cannot pass through the membrane This electrical differences charge is called the resting potential"

Action cell Potential

• whena neuron activated/ion channels open, to reversing allow ions to flow in and out, reversing the membrane positive moment potential (becoming brief). This sending potential change a down neuron potential

Neurotransmission

• Synaptic Transmission: an potential at reaches neurotransmitters terminal, are transmitters released into synaptic bind to receptor gap, the which can receptors likelihood transmitters reduce

How Neurotransmitters Work In The Communication Process Between Neurons

• Step 1: Initiate Action Potential
• Step 2: Get Signal to Axon Terminal
• Step 3: Release Neurotransmitters
• Step 4: Connect and Join
• Step 5: Post-Signal Effect
• Step 6: Clear Neurotransmitters
• Step 7: Reuse and Recycle

Neural Representation and the Visual System

• Neurons use signals to transmit with several examples
• Cells: Cells are designed to activate light and information cells in the amount of light that can appear at one time

Stage 2: Retinal Ganglion Cells

• They receive with several cells
• Each area is in with other stimuli that affect in the sensory area

Stage 3: Simple Cells in the Primary Visual Cortex

• cells in the that can complex visual images
• Complex images: by a with the image

Concepts of Neurological Signals

• Receptive Field
• is a way to view data by visually viewing data based on the image. The visual will be presented with one line angled at different spots

Localization of Brain Functions

• Cognitive functions that call the spatial process brain the Visual process the visual cortex. is with taste process touch sensation and handle functions cognitive follows with sensory others by sensory sensory
• Some areas of the brain has a topographic organization. Neurons are being connected to other brain matter

Cognitive Neuroscience methods

Methods of Function

• Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI): Flow/Data: data over data-time and Pro/Con
• The electroencephalogram (EEG) helps assist information: Data/information
• Neuron Recording and Data

Interference Methods

• lesions to observe deficits cognitive with to researchers and to researchers. Henry underwent new HM Molaison epilepsy his temporal medial ability damage lobe
• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation A TMS researcher to allows disrupt, but researchers. brain function
• High temporal resolution
• Spatial resolution is moderate, and temporary effects

Test your knowledge of cognitive psychology's historical roots and key concepts. Questions cover Wundt, James, functionalism, introspection, and basic mental processes. It also tests understanding of decision-making under uncertainty.