Classical and Operant Conditioning Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What did Bandura pioneer in the field of learning?

Observational learning (correct)

Instinctive drift

Operant conditioning

Classical conditioning

What are mirror neurons believed to enable?

Generalizations

Imitation and empathy (correct)

Instinctive drift

Operant conditioning

What may biological constraints predispose organisms to learn?

Associations that are naturally adaptive (correct)

Unconditioned responses

Generalizations

Predictability of associations

What did the Bobo doll experiment demonstrate?

Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment Signup and view all the answers

What are socially responsive toddlers likely to have as preschoolers?

Strong internalized conscience Signup and view all the answers

What may abusive parents have in their children?

Aggressive behavior Signup and view all the answers

What does behavior modeling enhance in new employees?

Learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills Signup and view all the answers

What effect does viewing prosocial media have on later behavior?

Increased helping behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcers include positive and negative reinforcement, primary and conditioned reinforcers, and immediate and delayed reinforcement?

Conditioned reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

What type of punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior?

Positive punishment Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what does reinforcement strengthen?

The preceding response Signup and view all the answers

What did Watson demonstrate in his studies of 'Little Albert' using classical conditioning principles?

How specific fears might be conditioned Signup and view all the answers

What did Skinner develop based on Thorndike’s law of effect?

Behavioral technology Signup and view all the answers

What type of schedules of reinforcement can be fixed or variable, affecting the frequency of reinforcement for a behavior?

Variable schedules Signup and view all the answers

What does punishment attempt to do in operant conditioning?

Decrease the frequency of a behavior Signup and view all the answers

What did Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning lead to in various areas?

Application in consciousness and therapy Signup and view all the answers

What does operant conditioning involve operating on to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli?

The environment Signup and view all the answers

What are the types of reinforcers in operant conditioning?

Primary and secondary reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

What does Skinner box, developed by Skinner, provide for experiments in operant conditioning?

A controlled environment Signup and view all the answers

What does everyday behavior in operant conditioning involve?

Continual reinforcement and shaping Signup and view all the answers

Who influenced Watson in his work on Classical Conditioning?

Pavlov Signup and view all the answers

What is the theoretical goal of the science of psychology according to Watson?

Prediction and control of behavior Signup and view all the answers

According to behaviorism, what should psychology study?

Behavior without reference to mental processes Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning is associated with the association of certain events and automatic responses?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Who influenced Watson in his work on Classical Conditioning?

Pavlov Signup and view all the answers

What is the theoretical goal of the science of psychology according to Watson?

Prediction and control of behavior Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning is associated with the association of certain events and automatic responses?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What may biological constraints predispose organisms to learn?

Certain behaviors over others Signup and view all the answers

According to Watson's behaviorism, psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. What is the theoretical goal of the science of psychology, as influenced by Watson?

Prediction and control of behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors called, as per the text?

Learning Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, which psychologist was influenced by Pavlov and emphasized the association between stimuli and automatic responses?

Watson Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning involves the association between a response and its consequences?

Operant conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of learning and encoding memories over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information called?

Memory consolidation Signup and view all the answers

Which measure of memory involves retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time?

Recall Signup and view all the answers

In the information-processing model of memory, what does the process of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in human memory compare to?

Computer operations Signup and view all the answers

According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, what is the first stage in processing to-be-remembered information?

Sensory memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage in forming explicit memories?

Sensory memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the capacity of short-term memory for most people without distraction?

Seven digits Signup and view all the answers

Which memory system includes both conscious and unconscious memories?

Dual-track memory system Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory involves conscious, active processing of auditory and visual information?

Working memory Signup and view all the answers

What are the effortful processing strategies to aid memory?

Chunking, mnemonics, and hierarchies Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is influenced by current mood?

Mood-congruent memory Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory aids in memory recall by matching encoding and retrieval contexts?

Context-dependent memory Signup and view all the answers

Which memory system includes semantic memory and episodic memory?

Explicit-memory system Signup and view all the answers

What type of processing emphasizes active processing and unconscious information processing?

Automatic processing Signup and view all the answers

What type of processing involves processing of auditory and visual information by a central executive?

Working memory Signup and view all the answers

What aids in memory recall by serving as anchor points for pathways to memories?

Retrieval cues Signup and view all the answers

What can occur at any memory stage due to encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, interference, and motivated forgetting?

Forgetting Signup and view all the answers

What is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people called?

Prototype Signup and view all the answers

What is a methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem?

Algorithm Signup and view all the answers

Which obstacle predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses?

Confirmation bias Signup and view all the answers

What is an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning?

Intuition Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the ability to produce new and valuable ideas supported by expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment?

Creativity Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive process involves estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory?

Availability heuristic Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for clinging to beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence?

Belief perseverance Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of language development involves the combination of spoken, written, or signed words for communication?

Telegraphic speech Signup and view all the answers

What term is used for language impairment caused by left hemisphere damage to Broca's or Wernicke's area?

Aphasia Signup and view all the answers

What do bilingual speakers use executive control over language for?

Inhibiting attention to irrelevant information Signup and view all the answers

What does brain damage impair?

Language Signup and view all the answers

Which brain areas are involved in language processing?

Broca's and Wernicke's areas Signup and view all the answers

What does the framing of an issue influence?

Decision-making Signup and view all the answers

What term is used for the process of learning and encoding memories over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information?

Cognitive processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for language expansion's ability to connect the past and the future?

Language expansion Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the spoken, written, or signed words and their combination for communication?

Language Signup and view all the answers

According to Spearman's general intelligence (g), what is at the heart of everything a person does?

One general intelligence Signup and view all the answers

According to Thurstone's response, how many clusters of primary mental abilities did he mathematically identify?

Seven Signup and view all the answers

According to Gardner's multiple intelligences, how many relatively independent intelligences exist?

Eight Signup and view all the answers

What did Gardner and Sternberg discount?

Spearman's general intelligence theory Signup and view all the answers

What are the components of emotional intelligence?

Perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions Signup and view all the answers

Which theory proposes three types of intelligences as analytical, creative, and practical?

Sternberg's theory Signup and view all the answers

What type of intelligence is said to increase with age?

Crystallized intelligence Signup and view all the answers

Who developed widely used intelligence tests for adults and children?

Wechsler Signup and view all the answers

What are the principles of test construction?

Standardization, reliability, and validity Signup and view all the answers

What did Terman's study focus on?

High-scoring children Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the diagnosis of intellectual disability, including Down syndrome?

Low extreme of intelligence Signup and view all the answers

What did Binet's early test of mental abilities focus on?

Environmental explanation Signup and view all the answers

What does the U.S. Supreme Court recognize in relation to the low extreme of intelligence?

Diagnosis of intellectual disability Signup and view all the answers

What do heritability estimates and evidence of environmental effects relate to?

Genetic and environmental influences on intelligence Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the evaluation of both low and high extremes of intelligence?

Extremes of intelligence Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports the existence of multiple intelligences?

Savant syndrome and autism spectrum disorder Signup and view all the answers

According to the James-Lange theory, what comes before emotion?

Awareness of physiological responses Signup and view all the answers

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, when do arousal and emotion occur?

At the same time Signup and view all the answers

What does the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory propose as the ingredients for emotions?

Physical arousal and cognitive appraisal Signup and view all the answers

In historical emotion theories, what does the Cannon-Bard theory propose about the relationship between bodily responses and cognitive responses?

They run parallel to each other Signup and view all the answers

Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for calming the body?

Parasympathetic division Signup and view all the answers

What type of response mobilizes the body for action in a crisis?

Fight-or-flight response Signup and view all the answers

At what level of arousal does performance peak for difficult tasks?

Lower levels Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe of the brain is predominantly active during experiences of happiness, enthusiasm, and feeling energized?

Frontal lobe Signup and view all the answers

"Joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt" are examples of:

Primary emotions Signup and view all the answers

"Chronic hostility is linked to heart disease" suggests that:

"Chronic hostility" increases the risk of heart disease Signup and view all the answers

Which culture is more likely to encourage people to vent their anger?

Individualist cultures Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'feel-good, do-good' phenomenon suggest?

Feeling good leads to helpful behavior Signup and view all the answers

What did Cannon view as the stress response?

Fight-or-flight system Signup and view all the answers

What do stress hormones do to the immune system?

Suppress it Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of aerobic exercise on stress?

Reduces stress levels Signup and view all the answers

What is social psychology?

The study of how individuals think, influence, and relate to one another Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental attribution error?

Overestimating the influence of personal traits and underestimating the effects of the situation Signup and view all the answers

What are attitudes influenced by?

Feelings influenced by beliefs Signup and view all the answers

When is the fundamental attribution error most likely to occur?

When a stranger acts badly Signup and view all the answers

What does social psychology study?

How people think about, influence, and relate to one another Signup and view all the answers

What are attitudes?

Feelings influenced by beliefs that predispose reactions to objects, people, and events Signup and view all the answers

What does social thinking involve?

How individuals perceive and interpret social situations and interactions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the scientific method used for in social psychology?

To study how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes peripheral route persuasion from central route persuasion?

Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues, while central route persuasion uses evidence and arguments Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains how actions can modify attitudes?

The foot-in-the-door phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive dissonance theory explain?

How people reduce discomfort by aligning attitudes with their actions Signup and view all the answers

What do Milgram's obedience experiments reveal?

How strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or exhibit cruel behavior Signup and view all the answers

What does social facilitation improve performance on?

Easy tasks Signup and view all the answers

What is deindividuation characterized by?

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations fostering arousal and anonymity Signup and view all the answers

At what levels does biology influence aggression?

Genetic, neural, and biochemical levels Signup and view all the answers

What drives altruism according to the text?

Unselfish concern for others influenced by factors like noticing an incident, interpreting it as an emergency, and assuming responsibility for helping Signup and view all the answers

When are the odds for being helped increased?

If the person appears to deserve help or is a woman Signup and view all the answers

What do Asch's conformity experiments demonstrate?

Social influence and automatic mimicry's impact on empathy and conformity Signup and view all the answers

What does social loafing involve according to the text?

Individuals exerting less effort in group settings Signup and view all the answers

What is personality according to the text?

Individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Signup and view all the answers

According to Freud's psychoanalytic perspective, where are unacceptable thoughts and feelings hidden?

Unconscious mind Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the mind operates both consciously and unconsciously, according to Freud's idea of the mind's structure?

Ego Signup and view all the answers

What did psychologists use to illustrate Freud’s idea that the mind is mostly hidden beneath the conscious surface?

Iceberg image Signup and view all the answers

According to Freud's psychoanalytic perspective, what is personality?

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Signup and view all the answers

What does Freud's psychoanalytic perspective propose about the mind's structure?

It is mostly hidden beneath the conscious surface, with the id being totally unconscious Signup and view all the answers

What did Freud observe in patients that led to his conclusions about unacceptable thoughts and feelings?

Disorders with no clear physical explanations Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the part of the mind that operates both consciously and unconsciously according to Freud's psychoanalytic perspective?

Ego Signup and view all the answers

Which defense mechanism functions indirectly and unconsciously?

Repression Signup and view all the answers

Who proposed the Big Five personality factors?

Costa and colleagues Signup and view all the answers

Which theory emphasizes the interaction of people's traits with their social context?

Social-cognitive perspective Signup and view all the answers

What is the most widely accepted picture of personality according to current research?

The Big Five personality factors Signup and view all the answers

Which type of self-esteem is less fragile and less contingent on external evaluations?

Secure self-esteem Signup and view all the answers

Which theorist believed that personalities help create situations to which people react?

Bandura Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a questionnaire used to assess selected personality traits?

Personality inventory Signup and view all the answers

Which theorist believed that personality results from the mind’s three systems: id, ego, and superego?

Freud Signup and view all the answers

What do trait theorists use factor analysis for?

Identify clusters of behavior tendencies that occur together Signup and view all the answers

What did Freud believe the id operates on?

Pleasure principle Signup and view all the answers

What do defense mechanisms protect the ego from?

Anxiety by reality distortion Signup and view all the answers

What is repression said to underlie according to Freud?

All other defense mechanisms Signup and view all the answers

What is the theoretical basis for psychological disorders according to psychologists and psychiatrists?

Disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributes to the development of psychological disorders according to the text?

Conditions and experiences associated with poverty Signup and view all the answers

What do rates of psychological disorders vary depending on?

Time and place of the survey Signup and view all the answers

What does the biopsychosocial approach consider in relation to psychological disorders?

Biological, psychological, and social factors Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is characterized by persistent and repetitive thoughts and actions?

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Signup and view all the answers

Among which age group is Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) more common?

Teens and young adults Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

Social withdrawal after traumatic experiences Signup and view all the answers

Who is at a higher risk for Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

Women Signup and view all the answers

What does depressive disorders affect more?

Women than men Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of psychoanalysis?

To bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness Signup and view all the answers

Which therapy uses medical procedures and medications for treatment?

Biomedical therapy Signup and view all the answers

What do behavior therapies primarily focus on?

Applying learning principles to modify problem behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is the eclectic approach to psychotherapy?

An approach that uses techniques from various forms of therapy Signup and view all the answers

Which psychotherapy technique involves exploring defended-against thoughts and feelings?

Free association Signup and view all the answers

Which therapy focuses on reducing inner conflicts and promoting personal growth?

Person-centered therapy Signup and view all the answers

What type of therapy utilizes classical conditioning and exposure therapies?

Behavior therapies Signup and view all the answers

What is aversion therapy for alcohol abuse based on?

Pairing alcohol with a drug that produces severe nausea Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combine?

Cognitive therapy with behavior therapy Signup and view all the answers

What type of psychotherapy works best for bed-wetting and phobias?

Behavior therapies Signup and view all the answers

What are the three basic benefits offered by psychotherapies?

A new perspective, hope, and trust-building Signup and view all the answers

What should individuals inquire about when seeking therapy?

Treatment approach, values, credentials, fees, and the ability to establish a comfortable bond with the therapist. Signup and view all the answers

What are cognitive therapies focused on teaching?

Changing thoughts and behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is the hindsight bias also known as?

The I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon illustrates the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it?

Hindsight bias Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon illustrates people's tendency to think they know more than they do?

Overconfidence Signup and view all the answers

What does overconfidence refer to in academic and social behavior?

People tend to think they know more than they do. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have predicted it?

Hindsight bias Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon illustrates people's tendency to think they know more than they do?

Overconfidence effect Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'hindsight bias' refer to?

Tendency to believe one could have predicted an outcome after learning it Signup and view all the answers

What illustrates the tendency to perceive patterns in random events?

Patternicity phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

What is critical thinking?

A more careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge than simply using intuition Signup and view all the answers

What is an operational definition?

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study Signup and view all the answers

What does a positive correlation indicate?

A direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together Signup and view all the answers

What does replication involve in research?

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances Signup and view all the answers

What does correlation not prove?

Causation Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of descriptive research?

To provide a clear, accurate picture of people's behaviors, thoughts, and attributes Signup and view all the answers

What is an experiment group in research?

The group that is manipulated or exposed to the treatment variable Signup and view all the answers

What is manipulation of factors in experimentation aimed at determining?

The effects of one or more factors Signup and view all the answers

What does holding constant ('controlling') other factors in an experiment help in determining?

The possibility of a cause-effect relationship between variables Signup and view all the answers

What does negative correlation indicate?

An inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the time period known as emerging adulthood?

Being in between and emotionally dependent on parents Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of adulthood does physical vigor become more closely linked to health and exercise than age?

Middle adulthood Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of late adulthood in terms of memory?

Terminal decline in memory Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the midlife transition according to the text?

Increase in generativity Signup and view all the answers

What do adults' commitments primarily revolve around according to the text?

Work Signup and view all the answers

When do positive feelings tend to grow according to the text?

After midlife Signup and view all the answers

What does the brain-wave reaction to negative images diminish with according to the text?

Age Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of behavior therapies according to the text?

Modifying behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for language expansion's ability to connect the past and the future according to the text?

Generativity Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of early adulthood in terms of physical development according to the text?

Peak time for learning and memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for an agent that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm?

Teratogen Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of prenatal development do body organs begin to form and function?

Fetal stage Signup and view all the answers

When does the life cycle begin according to the text?

At fertilization Signup and view all the answers

What is the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through 2 months referred to as?

Embryo Signup and view all the answers

What do we call physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking?

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the interaction between genetic inheritance and experiences influencing our development?

Nature-nurture interplay Signup and view all the answers

At what point does the zygote enter a 2-week period of rapid cell division?

Immediately after implantation Signup and view all the answers

What do we call an agent, such as a chemical or virus, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm?

Teratogen Signup and view all the answers

What part of development are gradual and continuous according to the text?

Parts of nature-nurture interaction Signup and view all the answers

When do body organs begin to form and function according to the text?

During fetal stage Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the phenomenon where children may fail to take the size of an object into account when trying to perform impossible actions with it?

Scale errors Signup and view all the answers

Which parenting style reflects varying degrees of control and impacts children's self-esteem, social competence, and aggression?

Authoritative Signup and view all the answers

What marks the transition from puberty to social independence in adolescents?

Adolescence Signup and view all the answers

According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which stage occurs from about 2 to 7 years of age?

Preoperational stage Signup and view all the answers

What do adolescents struggle with according to developmental psychology?

Identity versus role confusion Signup and view all the answers

What do cultural values influence according to child development studies?

Parenting styles Signup and view all the answers

What are the stages outlined in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational Signup and view all the answers

What do parenting styles impact according to child development research?

Children's self-esteem and social competence Signup and view all the answers

According to child development studies, what is crucial for building close relationships in adolescence?

Healthy identity formation Signup and view all the answers

What do adolescents struggle with according to developmental psychology?

Identity versus role confusion Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Understanding Classical and Operant Conditioning

Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning are applied in various areas such as consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, and therapy.
Addicts are counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings, and pairing a particular taste with a drug can eventually lead to a response from taste alone.
Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.
Operant conditioning involves behavior operating on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli, with actions followed by reinforcement increasing and those followed by punishments decreasing.
Skinner expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect and developed behavioral technology and principles of behavior control, using the Skinner box for experiments.
Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped, with reinforcement strengthening a preceding response and shaping guiding behavior towards the desired behavior.
Types of reinforcers include positive and negative reinforcement, primary and conditioned reinforcers, and immediate and delayed reinforcement.
Schedules of reinforcement include ratio and interval schedules, which can be fixed or variable, affecting the frequency of reinforcement for a behavior.
Punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior, with positive and negative punishment being two types.
Physical punishment may suppress behavior temporarily, teach discrimination among situations, teach fear, and increase aggression.
Operant conditioning has applications in education, sports, work, and parenting, with computer learning software, behavioral methods in sports, rewards for productivity, and shaping used in parenting.
Reinforcing desired behavior and extinguishing undesired ones involve setting measurable goals, monitoring behavior, reducing rewards gradually, and reinforcing the desired behavior. The contrast between classical and operant conditioning lies in the type of response, acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

Modified Three-Stage Information Processing Model of Memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin model's updated concepts include working memory and automatic processing to emphasize active processing and unconscious information processing.
Working memory involves conscious, active processing of auditory and visual information, handled by a central executive.
Sensory memory is the first stage in forming explicit memories, involving brief recording of sensory information.
Dual-track memory system includes explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memories formed through effortful and automatic processing.
Short-term memory capacity is limited, with most people able to remember seven digits or six letters without distraction.
Effortful processing strategies include chunking, mnemonics, and hierarchies to aid memory.
Verbal information is processed at different levels affecting long-term retention, including shallow and deep processing.
Explicit-memory system includes semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (personal experiences) consolidated in long-term memory.
Retrieval cues such as priming, context-dependent memory, and state-dependent memory aid in memory recall.
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations, with retrieval cues serving as anchor points for pathways to memories.
Context-dependent memory and state-dependent memory improve recall when the encoding and retrieval contexts match, and mood-congruent memory is influenced by current mood.
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage due to encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, interference, and motivated forgetting.

Cognitive Processes and Language Development Summary

Availability heuristic involves estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
Belief perseverance is clinging to beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence
Framing influences decisions by influencing how an issue is posed
Creativity is the ability to produce new and valuable ideas supported by expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment
Cognitive processes include algorithm, heuristic, insight, confirmation bias, fixation, intuition, overconfidence, and belief perseverance
Language involves spoken, written, or signed words and their combination for communication
Language development includes babbling, one-word stage, two-word stage, and telegraphic speech
Brain damage can impair language, and Broca's and Wernicke's areas are involved in language processing
Aphasia is language impairment caused by left hemisphere damage to Broca's or Wernicke's area
Bilingual speakers use executive control over language for inhibiting attention to irrelevant information
Language expands the ability to think and connects the past and the future
Brain activity in Broca's and Wernicke's areas is confirmed during language processing

Theories of Multiple Intelligences and Emotional Intelligence

Evidence of multiple intelligences in savant syndrome and autism spectrum disorder
Sternberg's three intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical
Components of emotional intelligence: perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions
Definitions of intelligence tests: intelligence, aptitude, and achievement tests
Early and modern tests of mental abilities: Binet's environmental explanation and Terman's revisions
Wechsler's widely used intelligence tests for adults and children
Principles of test construction: standardization, reliability, and validity
Aging and intelligence: crystallized intelligence increases with age, while fluid intelligence decreases
Extremes of intelligence: evaluation of low and high extremes
Low extreme of intelligence: diagnosis of intellectual disability, Down syndrome, and U.S. Supreme Court's recognition
High extreme of intelligence: findings from Terman's study on high-scoring children
Genetic and environmental influences on intelligence: heritability estimates and evidence of environmental effects

Social Psychology Key Concepts

Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues to produce fast but thoughtless attitude changes, while central route persuasion uses evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses.
Actions can modify attitudes, such as through the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and role playing.
Attitudes follow behavior, and cooperative actions promote positive behavior and mutual liking.
Cognitive dissonance theory explains how people reduce discomfort by bringing attitudes in line with their actions.
The chameleon effect and Asch's conformity experiments demonstrate social influence and automatic mimicry's impact on empathy and conformity.
Milgram's obedience experiments reveal how strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or exhibit cruel behavior.
Social facilitation can improve performance on easy tasks but decrease it on difficult ones, and social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in group settings.
Deindividuation involves loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Biology influences aggression at genetic, neural, and biochemical levels.
Psychological and social-cultural factors, such as frustration-aggression principle and media portrayals of violence, contribute to aggressive behavior.
Altruism is driven by unselfish concern for others and is influenced by factors like noticing an incident, interpreting it as an emergency, and assuming responsibility for helping.
Odds for being helped are increased if the person appears to deserve help or is a woman.

Understanding Mental Health Disorders

Anxiety disorders involve distressing, persistent anxiety and maladaptive behaviors.
Generalized anxiety disorder causes continual tension and autonomic nervous system arousal.
Panic disorder leads to sudden episodes of intense dread and fear of future attacks.
Phobias involve persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of specific objects or situations.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is marked by persistent and repetitive thoughts and actions.
OCD is more common among teens and young adults than older individuals.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, and social withdrawal after traumatic experiences.
PTSD is prevalent among battle-scarred veterans, accident survivors, and victims of violent assaults, with a higher risk for women.
Depressive disorders are widespread and affect more women than men.
The depressed brain shows slowed activity, especially in the left frontal lobe, and a scarcity of norepinephrine and serotonin.
Social-cognitive perspective links depression to negative self-views and expectations, learned helplessness, and a cycle of stressful experiences leading to negative moods and actions.
Suicide involves 1 million people worldwide, with a higher risk among individuals diagnosed with depression, while nonsuicidal self-injury includes various harmful behaviors.

Psychotherapy Overview

Psychotherapy techniques include historical reconstruction, hypnosis, free association, and interpretation of resistance and transference.
Psychodynamic therapy aims to help people understand current symptoms and explore defended-against thoughts and feelings.
Humanistic therapies emphasize self-fulfillment, reducing inner conflicts, and promoting personal growth through client-centered therapy.
Person-centered therapy, a humanistic approach, focuses on conscious self-perceptions, active listening, and fostering growth through genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.
Behavior therapies utilize classical conditioning, counterconditioning, exposure therapies, systematic desensitization, aversive conditioning, and operant conditioning therapy.
Aversion therapy for alcohol abuse involves conditioning an aversion to alcohol by pairing it with a drug that produces severe nausea.
Operant conditioning therapy and behavior modification are used to reinforce desired behaviors and discourage undesired behaviors.
Cognitive therapies teach new ways of thinking and aim to change perceptions through gentle questioning and modification of negative self-talk.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy to alter behavior and thinking.
Different forms of psychotherapy work best for specific problems, such as behavior therapies for bed-wetting and phobias, psychodynamic therapy for depression and anxiety, and cognitive therapies for anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
Psychotherapies offer three basic benefits: hope for demoralized individuals, a new perspective on oneself and the world, and an empathic, trusting, caring relationship (therapeutic alliance).
When seeking therapy, individuals should inquire about treatment approach, values, credentials, fees, and the ability to establish a comfortable bond with the therapist.

Child Development: From Infancy to Adolescence

Motor skills develop as the nervous system and muscles mature, following a universal sequence but not in timing, guided by genes and influenced by the environment.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development involves children being active thinkers, developing through universal stages, and building schemas through assimilation and accommodation.
Children age 18 to 30 months may fail to take the size of an object into account when trying to perform impossible actions with it, a phenomenon known as scale errors.
Piaget's theory outlines stages such as the sensorimotor stage (birth to nearly 2 years), preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years), concrete operational (7 to 11 years), and formal operational (12 through adulthood).
Parenting styles, reflecting varying degrees of control, include authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian, impacting children's self-esteem, social competence, and aggression.
Cultural values influence parenting styles, and it's essential to recognize diversity in child-rearing systems for successful child development.
Adolescence marks the transition from puberty to social independence, with early maturing boys and girls facing specific challenges and risks.
Adolescents develop reasoning power and moral judgment following Piaget's and Kohlberg's theories, respectively.
Adolescents struggle with identity versus role confusion, and healthy identity formation is crucial for building close relationships.
Parent-child arguments increase during adolescence, but most adolescents report liking their parents, while peers significantly influence behavior and social networking.
Understanding child development from infancy to adolescence involves recognizing universal stages, the impact of parenting styles and cultural values, and the challenges and risks of adolescence.
Piaget's theory and Kohlberg's levels of moral thinking provide insights into cognitive and moral development through childhood and adolescence.

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Test your knowledge of classical and operant conditioning with this quiz. Explore the principles and applications of Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning, as well as the differences between reinforcement and punishment. Understand how these psychological concepts are applied in various areas such as therapy, education, and parenting.