Chapter 8. Memory, sem 231_242c140e5fd1c6e3e011e92db693c37e.pptx
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Chapter Overview Studying and Encoding Memories Storing and Retrieving Memories Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory Studying Memory (part 1) Memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Measures of memory R...
Chapter Overview Studying and Encoding Memories Storing and Retrieving Memories Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory Studying Memory (part 1) Memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Measures of memory Recall: Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time Recognition: Identifying items previously learned Relearning: Learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time Studying Memory (part 2) Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory. Information-processing model Compares human memory to computer operations Involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval Connectionism information-processing model Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks Memory Models (part 1) Three processing stages in the Atkinson- Shiffrin model 1. We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory. 2. We process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal. 3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval. A Modified Three-Stage InformationProcessing Model of Memory Memory Models (part 2) Atkinson-Shiffrin model’s updated concepts Working memory: To stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage Automatic processing: To address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness Memory Models (part 3) Working memory • Involves newer understanding of short-term memory Focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual–spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory Is handled by a central executive (Baddeley, 2002) Sensory Memory What is sensory memory? First stage in forming explicit memories Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic memory: Picture- image memory Echoic memory: Sound memory Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing Dual-track memory system Explicit memories (declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track Short-Term Memory Capacity Short-term memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten George Miller (1956) Magical number seven: Most people can store seven bits of information (give or take two). Baddeley and colleagues (1975) Without distraction, most people can remember seven digits or six letters or five words. Working memory Capacity varies by age and and other factors. Effortful Processing Strategies Chunking: Organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Hierarchies: Organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts Levels of Processing Verbal information is processed at different levels that affect long-term retention. Shallow processing encodes information on a very basic level (a word’s letters) or a more intermediate level (a word’s sound). Deep processing encodes information semantically based on word meaning. Explicit-Memory System Semantic memory: Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems Episodic memory: Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems Memory consolidation: The neural storage of a long-term memory Our Two Memory Systems Memory Retrieval Cues (part 1) Retrieval cues Priming Context-dependent memory State-dependent memory Serial position effect Memory Retrieval Cues (part 2) Memory retrieval Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memories suspended in this web. The best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded. Priming Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Priming: Awakening Associations After seeing or hearing the word rabbit, we are more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e. Associations unconsciously activate related associations—a called priming. (Adapted from Bower, 1986.) Memory Retrieval Cues (part 3) Context-dependent memory Recall of specific information is improved when the contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are the same. Encoding specificity principle Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall. Memory Retrieval Cues (part 4) State-dependent memory The tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory) Mood-congruent memory The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood Serial position effect The tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list When Do We Forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. When we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it. Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind Humans have two distinct memory systems controlled by different parts of the brain. Forgetting has several causes: Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Interference Motivated forgetting Forgetting: Encoding and Storage Decay Encoding failure Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline. Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure. Storage decay Course of forgetting is initially rapid, but then levels off with time. Physical changes in the brain occur as memories form (memory trace). Encoding Failure Retrieval Failure Forgetting (part 1) Interference Proactive: Older memories make it more difficult to remember new information. Retroactive: New learning disrupts memory for older information. Forgetting (part 2) Motivated forgetting Freud: Repressed memories protect a person’s selfconcept and minimize anxiety. Today: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional. Memory Construction Errors (part 1) Misinformation and imagination effects Misinformation effect: A memory is corrupted by misleading information. Imagination effect: Repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories. Memory Construction Errors (part 2) Source amnesia (source misattribution) Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine Déjà vu The sense that “I’ve experienced this before” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Improving Memory The SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review) study technique incorporates several learning strategies: Rehearse repeatedly. Make the material meaningful. Activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Sleep more. Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know.
