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Questions and Answers
What term describes the groups that share an immediate common ancestor in a phylogenetic tree?
What term describes the groups that share an immediate common ancestor in a phylogenetic tree?
A rooted tree represents the last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree.
A rooted tree represents the last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree.
True
What are phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry called?
What are phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry called?
homologies
A __________ characteristic is present in an ancestral species and shared by its evolutionary descendants.
A __________ characteristic is present in an ancestral species and shared by its evolutionary descendants.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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What does cladistics primarily focus on when classifying organisms?
What does cladistics primarily focus on when classifying organisms?
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All chordates have a notochord at some stage of their development.
All chordates have a notochord at some stage of their development.
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What are pharyngeal slits and their significance in chordates?
What are pharyngeal slits and their significance in chordates?
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The dorsal, hollow nerve cord develops into the ______ and ______ in vertebrates.
The dorsal, hollow nerve cord develops into the ______ and ______ in vertebrates.
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Match the chordate characteristic to its description:
Match the chordate characteristic to its description:
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What is the significance of shared derived characters (synapomorphies) in cladistics?
What is the significance of shared derived characters (synapomorphies) in cladistics?
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Phylogenies use only genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships.
Phylogenies use only genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships.
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What do cladograms illustrate?
What do cladograms illustrate?
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Feathers are a shared derived character that is found in all modern __________.
Feathers are a shared derived character that is found in all modern __________.
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Which of the following describes the primary focus of cladistics?
Which of the following describes the primary focus of cladistics?
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What method does phylogenetics use to infer evolutionary relationships among species?
What method does phylogenetics use to infer evolutionary relationships among species?
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The output of phylogenetics is often represented as __________.
The output of phylogenetics is often represented as __________.
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What is the primary purpose of systematics in zoology?
What is the primary purpose of systematics in zoology?
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All living organisms are made of multiple cells.
All living organisms are made of multiple cells.
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What is the significance of DNA in living organisms?
What is the significance of DNA in living organisms?
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The more closely related two organisms are, the more similar their __________.
The more closely related two organisms are, the more similar their __________.
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Which of the following is NOT an evidence for evolution?
Which of the following is NOT an evidence for evolution?
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Extinction occurs when organisms fail to adapt to existing conditions.
Extinction occurs when organisms fail to adapt to existing conditions.
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What does the mnemonic device 'Dashing King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup' help to remember?
What does the mnemonic device 'Dashing King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup' help to remember?
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Organisms share a common __________ history through evolution.
Organisms share a common __________ history through evolution.
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Match the species with their correct scientific name:
Match the species with their correct scientific name:
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What is the main difference between homology and analogy?
What is the main difference between homology and analogy?
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A paraphyletic grouping includes an ancestral species and all its descendants.
A paraphyletic grouping includes an ancestral species and all its descendants.
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What is a clade?
What is a clade?
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A shared derived character is known as a __________.
A shared derived character is known as a __________.
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Match the following types of clades with their definitions:
Match the following types of clades with their definitions:
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Which of the following accurately describes an outgroup in phylogenetic analysis?
Which of the following accurately describes an outgroup in phylogenetic analysis?
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A symplesiomorphy is a shared derived character unique to a particular clade.
A symplesiomorphy is a shared derived character unique to a particular clade.
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What is the significance of distinguishing between shared derived and shared ancestral characteristics?
What is the significance of distinguishing between shared derived and shared ancestral characteristics?
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Which group of nonvertebrate chordates retains all five chordate characteristics as adults?
Which group of nonvertebrate chordates retains all five chordate characteristics as adults?
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Vertebrates possess a cranium that is composed of soft tissues.
Vertebrates possess a cranium that is composed of soft tissues.
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What are the three primary tissue layers that form vertebrate bodies?
What are the three primary tissue layers that form vertebrate bodies?
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The vertebrate nervous system is controlled by the _____ brain, which includes olfactory and visual sensory structures.
The vertebrate nervous system is controlled by the _____ brain, which includes olfactory and visual sensory structures.
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Match the vertebrate classes with their distinguishing features:
Match the vertebrate classes with their distinguishing features:
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What evolutionary feature is primarily responsible for distinguishing amphibians from earlier vertebrates?
What evolutionary feature is primarily responsible for distinguishing amphibians from earlier vertebrates?
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The mineralized tissues in vertebrates provide weak support structures.
The mineralized tissues in vertebrates provide weak support structures.
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What is the functional unit of the vertebrate excretory system?
What is the functional unit of the vertebrate excretory system?
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Vertebrates have a _____ circulatory system, which is closed.
Vertebrates have a _____ circulatory system, which is closed.
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Which system detects environmental stimuli such as taste and smell in vertebrates?
Which system detects environmental stimuli such as taste and smell in vertebrates?
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Match the developmental features with the corresponding descriptions:
Match the developmental features with the corresponding descriptions:
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Only vertebrates exhibit neural crest development.
Only vertebrates exhibit neural crest development.
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Which group of animals is known for possessing feathers?
Which group of animals is known for possessing feathers?
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Study Notes
Vertebrate Zoology Introduction
- Vertebrate Zoology is the study of the animal kingdom (Metazoa).
- Several branches of zoology exist, including ichthyology (fish), ornithology (birds), entomology (insects), herpetology (reptiles and amphibians), mammalogy (mammals), malacology (mollusks), arachnology (spiders), protozoology (single-celled animals), and parasitology (parasites).
Commonality of All Living Things
- All living things are made of cells (Cell Theory).
- Genetic unity is characterized by DNA containing hereditary information.
- Organisms share a common genetic history, and evolution is the unifying theory of biology.
- Evidence of evolution includes biodiversity, the fossil record, comparative embryology, DNA, biogeography, and comparative anatomy.
- Adapting to conditions or facing extinction is a crucial aspect of survival.
Classification of Species
- A mnemonic device for remembering the taxonomic hierarchy is "Dashing King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup".
- The taxonomic hierarchy includes domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
- The hierarchy organizes organisms by complexity (broad to specific).
Phylogenetic Systematics
- Phylogeny diagrams branching events of species and groups over evolutionary time.
- Systematics employs fossils, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships and classify organisms.
Classification Example Figure
- The example figure shows a hierarchy with order, family, genus, and species classifications.
- Species are grouped based on evolutionary relationships.
- Specific examples of animals in the figure are Panthera pardus (leopard), Taxidea taxus (American badger), Lutra lutra (European otter) and Canis latrans (coyote).
Phylogeny Vocabulary
- A branch point represents where two species diverge during evolution.
- A rooted tree shows the evolutionary history of taxa with a common ancestor at the root of the tree.
- Sister taxa are groups sharing an immediate common ancestor.
- A basal taxon diverges early in the history of a group and branches off near the common ancestry.
Phylogeny Figure
- A branch point indicates where lineages diverge, creating new branches.
- This diagram shows the unresolved pattern of divergence among taxa known as a polytomy, highlighting the relationships between groups.
- The example figures show relationships between taxa (e.g. taxon A, taxon B etc).
Morphological and Molecular Homologies
- Phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry are called homologies.
- Organisms with similar morphologies or DNA sequences are likely more closely related than those with different characteristics or sequences.
- A synapomorphy is a characteristic present in an ancestor and shared exclusively (or in a modified form) by its descendants.
Homologous vs. Analogous
- Homology is similarity due to shared ancestry.
- Analogy refers to similarities due to convergent evolution.
- Convergent evolution occurs when similar environmental pressures result in similar adaptations in unrelated organisms.
- Examples illustrating homologous and analogous mammalian structures are presented.
Cladistics
- Cladistics groups organisms based on common ancestry and shared derived characteristics.
- Clades include ancestors and all their descendants.
- Clades can be nested within larger clades.
- Specific categories of clades are monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic.
Cladistic Figure (Monophyletic, Paraphyletic, and Polyphyletic Groups)
- Illustrative diagrams classifying groups based on shared derived characteristics.
- A monophyletic group includes a common ancestor and all its descendants.
- A paraphyletic group includes a common ancestor but excludes some descendants.
- A polyphyletic group includes unrelated organisms without a common ancestor.
Shared Ancestral and Derived Characters
- A shared ancestral character (symplesiomorphy) is a trait originating in a distant ancestor.
- A shared derived character (synapomorphy) is a trait unique to a specific evolutionary lineage (shared by an ancestor and descendants).
- Synapomorphies are helpful in determining evolutionary relations.
Cladistics and Phylogenies Differences
- Cladistics focuses on shared derived characteristics to group organisms and produce cladograms.
- Phylogenies analyze the evolutionary history and relationships of organisms.
- Cladistics is a specific method to classify organisms.
- Phylogenies offer a bigger picture of evolutionary relationships and history.
Animal Characteristics
- Vertebrates and invertebrates share fundamental characteristics like being eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic (getting energy from consuming other organisms).
- Vertebrates have internal digestion, epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
Diversity of Extant Vertebrates
- Different vertebrate classes (such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) are represented.
- The number of species in each class varies significantly.
5 Chordate Characteristics
- Chordates share five key characteristics:
- dorsal, hollow nerve cord
- notochord
- pharyngeal slits
- endostyle
- post-anal tail
- These features develop in different ways in various chordate lineages throughout their evolutionary history.
Phylogeny of Animal Kingdom
- The diagram shows the evolutionary relationships among various animal groups and the evolutionary pathways from a common ancestor.
- Major clades and evolutionary lineages are shown (e.g. Protostomia, Deuterostomia, Vertebrata, Invertebrate vertebrates, etc).
Extant Nonvertebrate Chordates
- Examples of nonvertebrate chordates include cephalochordates (e.g., lancelets) and urochordates (e.g., sea squirts).
- These groups retain characteristics of chordates only during specific life stages.
Cephalochordata
- Cephalochordates are invertebrate chordates without a backbone.
- They have all five chordate characteristics as adults.
- They are filter-feeders propelled by V-shaped segmented muscles.
Urochordata
- Urochordates are invertebrate chordates without a backbone.
- They have chordate characteristics as larvae but only retain pharyngeal slits (basket) as adults.
- Their bodies have a covering or tunic composed of cellulose.
- They are sessile adults.
Distinguishing a Vertebrate
- Vertebrates possess a vertebral column formed from vertebrae instead of a notochord.
- Vertebrates have a distinct head with sensory organs and a tripartite brain (forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain) .
- Other distinguishing features include hormones regulated by an anterior pituitary and mineralized tissues.
Vertebrate Body Development
- Vertebrate bodies develop from three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm).
- Ectoderm forms the epidermis, parts of the digestive system, and the nervous system.
- Mesoderm forms muscle, skeletal, and urogenital systems.
- Endoderm forms the lining of the digestive system and related organs, respiratory areas, and various glands.
Development of Tripartite Brain
- The forebrain is involved in sensory processing (smell, sight) and higher cognitive functions.
- Incoming sensory information is relayed and integrated in the midbrain areas.
- The hindbrain regulates involuntary actions like respiration and circulation.
Duplication of Hox Genes
- Hox genes regulate developmental processes and control the body's anterior-posterior axis.
- Clustered Hox genes create a similar sequence along the axis they control.
- Duplication of Hox genes is essential to the increasing complexity of vertebrate structures and functions.
Neural Crest Development
- Neural crest cells develop in vertebrates and migrate to form various structures like adrenal glands.
- Neural crest cells are implicated in the formation of gut, and smooth muscle lineages, making them important for tissue and organ development.
Adult Tissue Types
- Epithelial tissues form boundaries and compartments.
- Muscle tissues facilitate movement via contractility.
- Neural tissues include neurons and glial cells.
- Connective tissues support the body with structure and strength.
Mineralized Tissues
- Hard tissues like enamel, dentine, bone, mineralized cartilage, and cementum support vertebrate skeletons.
- Enamel and dentine are found in teeth and in some fish scales.
- Bone is an internal supporting structure, present in fish, and terrestrial vertebrates.
Axial Musculature
- Axial muscles are important for locomotion in vertebrates and play a crucial role in movement.
- Axial muscles in various groups (amphioxus, lamprey, sharks, and bony fish) exhibit different structures.
Basic Vertebrate Systems
- Vertebrates have specialized systems for nutrition, circulation, waste removal, and reproduction.
- A comprehensive overview of the alimentary, cardiovascular, excretory, and reproductive systems is detailed in the notes.
Basic Vertebrate Sensory Systems
- Vertebrate sensory systems detect stimuli in all environments, like taste, smell, vision, and hearing.
- Specific examples in vertebrates demonstrate how electroreception and mechanoreception work.
Classes of Vertebrates
- Key characteristics of distinct vertebrate classes are outlined The seven classes of vertebrates are agnaths, cartilaginous fish, bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, each with specific evolutionary adaptations.
"On Being the Right Size"
- Vertebrates often have internal skeletons consisting of bone or cartilage that allow for support and growth to significant sizes.
- These skeletons may be divided into regions such as the braincase, vertebrae, axial bones, and appendicular bones. The endoskeleton is presented as an important example of support and growth in vertebrates.
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Description
Test your knowledge on cladistics, phylogenetics, and the classification of organisms. This quiz covers topics such as common ancestors, shared characteristics, and chordate development. Dive into the details of evolutionary relationships and characteristics that define different groups of organisms.
