Child Development and Attachment Theories

Brain Development

• The brain grows rapidly during infancy and toddlerhood
• Brain plasticity is the ability of the brain to change in response to experience
• Plasticity allows for new connections to be made, and existing connections to be strengthened or weakened
• Pruning is the process of eliminating unused neural connections
• This process helps to refine the brain's organization and efficiency

Fine Motor Skills

• The ability to use small muscles, especially those in the hands and fingers, is essential for tasks such as grasping, reaching, and manipulating objects
• Infants first develop a palmar grasp, using the whole hand to pick up objects
• They then progress to a pincer grasp, using the thumb and forefinger to pick up small objects
• By the age of 2, children are able to use crayons and scissors, copy simple shapes, and turn pages in a book

Gross Motor Skills

• Involve the use of large muscles, such as those in the legs and arms
• Infants are initially limited in their gross motor skills, but they will develop these skills with practice and maturation
• By the age of 1, most infants are able to walk independently
• These skills continue to refine into early childhood including:
  • Running and jumping
  • Throwing and catching
  • Climbing and swinging

Common Physical Conditions and Issues During Infancy

• SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome): a leading cause of death in infants, occurs when a baby suddenly stops breathing and dies
• Colic: a condition that causes babies to cry excessively for no apparent reason
• Reflux: a condition that occurs when stomach acid flows back up into the esophagus, causing discomfort and irritation
• Allergies: a common concern for infants who may be allergic to food, dust, or other allergens
• Rashes: common during infancy, with various potential causes including diaper rash, heat rash, and eczema
• Ear Infections: common in young children due to underdeveloped Eustachian tubes
• Constipation: a common problem that occurs when stools are hard and difficult to pass

Cognitive Infancy Recorder

• Also known as the Bayley Scales of Infant Development
• Assesses development in five domains: cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behavior

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor skills
  • Object Permanence: An understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight
  • Goal-directed Behavior: Engaging in behaviors with a specific purpose in mind
  • Symbolic Thought: The ability to represent objects and events using mental symbols
  • Deferred Imitation: The ability to imitate behaviors that were observed earlier
  • Circular Reactions: Repetition of actions that produce interesting results

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theories of Cognitive Development

• Focused on the importance of social interaction and culture in cognitive development
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more knowledgeable person
• Scaffolding: The process of providing support to children as they learn new tasks
• Language Development:
  • Language is a powerful tool for learning and development
  • Children acquire language through interaction with others

Language Development

• Prelinguistic Stage (birth to 12 months) -
  • Cooing: Making vowel sounds
  • Babbling: Repeating consonant-vowel combinations
  • Vocalizations: Begin to resemble sounds from their native language
  • Gestures: Using nonverbal communication to express needs and desires
• One-Word Stage (12-18 months) -
  • Holophrases: One-word sentences that convey a complete thought
• Two-Word Stage (18-24 months) - (Telegraphic Speech)
  • Two-word combinations: Two-word sentences that express simple relationships between objects or actions, like "Daddy sit" or "Baby play."

Theories of Language Development

• Nativist Theory: Advocates for innate language skills
• Learning Theory: Argues that language develops through observation, imitation, and reinforcement
• Interactionist Theory: Language development as a result of interaction between innate abilities and environmental influences

Learning and Memory Theories

• Information-Processing Approach: Emphasizes the role of attention, memory, and problem-solving in cognitive development
• Working Memory: The mental workspace where information is temporarily stored and processed

Memory

• Infants and toddlers have limited memory capacity, but they can learn and remember information
• Implicit Memory: Procedural memory, like how to ride a bike
• Explicit Memory: Conscious recollection of events and facts
  • Recognition Memory: The ability to recognize previously encountered stimuli
    • Starts to develop around 3-4 months of age
• Recall Memory: The ability to retrieve information from memory without any cues
  • Develops later than recognition memory

Short-Term Memory Storage

• Temporary storage information needed for a relatively short time

Long-Term Memory Storage

• Storage for permanent, stable information

Attachment

• Strong, enduring emotional bond between a child and caregiver.
• Forms in the first year of life and influences development across the lifespan.

Harry Harlow

• Demonstrated the importance of contact comfort in attachment
• Conducted classic studies with rhesus monkeys

Bowlby's Ethological Theory of Attachment

• Attachment is an innate behavior that has evolutionary value
• Provides a secure base for exploration and a safe haven when threatened.

Bowlby's Secure Base

• A caregiver who provides a sense of safety and security, allowing the child to explore their environment
• Characteristic Development of Attachment Behavior:
  • Phase 1 (birth to 2 months) - Pre-attachment: Infants exhibit indiscriminate social behaviors
  • **Phase 2 (2-7 months)- ** Attachment in the making: Infants begin to show preferences for specific individuals
  • **Phase 3 (7-24 months) - ** Clear-cut attachment: Infants develop strong, specific attachments to primary caregivers
    • Separation Anxiety: Crying and distress when separated from caregiver
    • Stranger Anxiety: Fear and distress in the presence of unfamiliar adults
  • Phase 4 (24 months +) - Goal-corrected partnership: Children develop a more mature understanding of the caregiver's needs and goals

Mary Ainsworth

• Developed the Strange Situation Procedure
• A laboratory procedure to assess attachment security

Attachment Classification

• Secure Attachment:
  • Happy and confident in the presence of the caregiver.
  • May be distressed when separated from the caregiver, but are easily comforted upon reunion.
• Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
  • Avoid contact with the caregiver, showing little distress upon separation, and little emotion upon reunion.
  • May appear independent.
• Insecure-Resistant Attachment
  • Seek closeness to caregiver but are difficult to soothe upon reunion.
  • Exhibit a combination of clinging and angry behaviors.
• Insecure-Disorganized Attachment
  • Exhibit a mixture of contradictory behaviors, such as approaching the caregiver while simultaneously avoiding eye contact.
  • May appear confused or withdrawn.
• Secure:
  • Child will use caregiver as a secure base for exploration.
  • May exhibit distress when separated from caregiver but are easily comforted by caregiver upon reunion.
• Insecure-Avoidant:
  • Child will avoid contact with caregiver upon reunion and may appear independent and emotionally detached
  • May show little distress upon separation.
• Insecure-Resistant:
  • Child will cling to caregiver and resist exploration.
    • Highly distressed by separation.
    • Difficult to soothe upon caregiver's return.
    • May exhibit mixed emotions upon reunion.
• Insecure-Disorganized:
  • Child will show a mix of contradictory behaviors, such as approaching the caregiver while simultaneously avoiding eye contact. May appear confused or withdrawn.
  • Often associated with traumatic experiences.

Internal Working Model

• Child's mental representation of the caregiver and the relationship with them.
• Develops as a result of early attachment experiences.
• Influences future relationships and social development.

Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust

• First stage of psychosocial development
• Infants develop a sense of trust if their basic needs are met consistently and responsively.
• A sense of mistrust develops if their needs are not met consistently or if they are treated inconsistently.
• Develops during the first year of life.

Temperament

• A child's innate behavioral style.
• Influenced by genetics and neurobiology.
• Three basic temperaments:
  • Easy Temperament:
    • Adaptable, happy, and regular in routines.
  • Difficult Temperament:
    • Irregular in routines, slow to adapt to new experiences, and likely to react negatively to new situations.
  • Slow-to-Warm-Up Temperament:
    • In between easy and difficult. Shy and cautious.
• Temperament is a stable trait but can be influenced by parenting and environmental experiences.

Personality

• A person's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
• Influenced by temperament, experience, and culture.

Cultural Influences

• Culture shapes how parents interact with their children and the development of attachment and temperament.
• Cultural differences in child-rearing practices can influence the expression of emotions, play, and social behavior.

Infant Emotion Development

• First emotions are basic and universal.
  • Develop in the first few months of life.
  • Include happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust.

Development of Happiness

• Social smiles
  • Develop around 6-8 weeks of age.
  • Triggered by social interaction.
• Laughter:
  • Emerges around 3-4 months of age.
  • Signifies enjoyment and delight.

Development of Anger & Sadness

• Both develop around 4-6 months of age.
• Triggered by frustration or separation from caregiver.

The Development of Fear

• Stranger Anxiety:
  • Develops around 6-8 months of age.
  • Fear of unfamiliar people and situations.
• Separation Anxiety:
  • Develops around 8-12 months of age.
  • Distress when separated from primary caregiver.

Self-Conscious Emotions

• Emerges during the second and third years of life.
• Requires an understanding of oneself as a separate individual.
• Includes pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt.
  • Embarrassment develops around 18 months of age.
  • Guilt and shame develop around 2-3 years of age.

Understanding others' emotions

• Infants begin to understand others' emotions by using social referencing.
• Social Referencing:
  • Looking to caregivers for cues on how to respond to unfamiliar situations.
  • Develops around 9-12 months of age.

Self-Awareness

• The ability to recognize oneself as a separate individual.
• Develops around 18 months of age.
• Shown by self-recognition in the mirror test.

Physical Development in Early Childhood

• This is a period of steady growth where children become slimmer and more coordinated.

Physical Growth

• Average growth in height is 2.5 inches per year.
• Average weight gain is 5-7 pounds per year.
  • Individual variation in growth is common.
  • Influenced by genetics and nutrition.
• The head is growing more slowly than the rest of the body.
  • The torso is lengthening, and limbs are becoming longer.

Gross Motor Skills

• Develop rapidly during early childhood.
• Children become increasingly skilled in tasks such as:
  • Running, jumping, skipping, and hopping
  • Throwing and catching a ball
  • Riding a tricycle
  • Climbing ladders and playground equipment
• **Important for: **
  • Development of physical coordination, balance, and coordination.
  • Promote social development and interaction during play with others.

Activities to Support Gross Motor Skills

• Provide opportunities for free play and organized activities.
• Encourage outdoor activities.
• Participate in activities such as sports, dance, or gymnastics.
• Avoid excessive time spent watching television or using electronic devices.

Fine Motor Skills

• Continue to become more refined as they develop more dexterity, strength, and endurance
• Become increasingly adept at tasks such as:
  • Drawing, coloring, and painting, using scissors, and writing.
  • Buttoning clothes, zipping zippers, and tying shoes.

Period of Physical Growth

• From age 3 to 6, children grow about 2-3 inches in height per year.
• By the age of 6, most children are about 46 inches tall.
• Weight gain averages about 4-5 pounds per year.

Factors that Affect Physical Growth

• Genetics: Influences height, weight, and body composition
• Nutrition: Provides necessary nutrients for growth and development
• Health: Illness or chronic conditions can affect growth
• Environment: Factors such as socioeconomic status and access to healthcare

Brain Maturation

• Continued rapid development during early childhood, particularly in the prefrontal cortex.
• Prefrontal cortex is responsible for planning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Increased myelination of nerve fibers, allowing for faster and more efficient transmission of neural messages.

Brain Weight

• Doubles by the age of 3.
• Continues to grow until adulthood.
• The brain reaches about 90% of its adult size by the age of 6.

Toilet Training

• Typically occurs between 18-30 months of age.
• Children are physically and cognitively ready when they:
  • Can stay dry for several hours.
  • Can communicate their need to go to the bathroom.
  • Can sit and stand up on their own.
  • Show interest in using the toilet.
• Important to be patient and encouraging.
• Avoid forcing children to use the toilet if they are not ready.
• Accidents are common, as it takes time to learn.

Some Follow-up Questions to Determine Toulet Training Readiness

• Can the child follow simple directions?
• Does the child have a regular bowel movement pattern?
• Is the child dry for several hours, sometimes even overnight?
• Can the child stay dry for several hours between diaper changes?

Elimination Disorders

• Enuresis: Bedwetting
• Encopresis: Soiling - Involuntary defecation
• Can occur due to medical conditions, psychological factors, or a combination of both.
• Important to seek professional help for these disorders.

Food Allergies

• Common in early childhood.
• Can range from mild reactions (hives, rash) to severe anaphylaxis
• Important to identify and avoid food allergens.
• Parents should be vigilant about reading food labels and educating children about food allergies.
• Early recognition and treatment of food allergies can prevent serious complications.

Explore key concepts in child development and attachment theories with this quiz. Test your knowledge on Bowlby's Ethological Theory, telegraphic speech in toddlers, and the role of social interactions in cognitive growth. Perfect for students in psychology and early childhood education.