Chapter 19: From Stalemate to Crisis

• Chapter 19: From Stalemate to Crisis

The Politics of Equilibrium

• The period after Reconstruction saw Republicans and Democrats closely divided.
• High voter turnout was driven by strong party loyalty and patronage.
• Minimal federal intervention allowed powerful political entities to develop locally and statewide.
• Inefficiency and corruption due to the spoils system sparked civil service reform demands.
• President Hayes faced resistance while attempting to restore integrity to the government.
• President Garfield's assassination by a disgruntled office seeker intensified calls for civil service reform.
• The Pendleton Act of 1883 established a merit-based system for federal jobs.

The Money Question

• The expansion of the money supply was a contentious issue.
• Debtors, farmers, and some manufacturers desired increased money circulation to induce inflation.
• "Soft money" supporters advocated for government-issued paper money or silver coinage.
• "Hard money," backed by gold, was favored by creditors, investors, and established businesses to prevent inflation.
• The Bland-Allison Act of 1878 allowed for limited silver coinage.
• The Greenback Party championed unbacked paper money.

The Revival of Agrarian Discontent

• Farmers were burdened by declining crop prices, high interest rates, and railroad freight costs.
• Initially, the Grange concentrated on social and educational activities before engaging in economic and political action.
• The Grangers founded cooperative stores, grain elevators, and warehouses to challenge unfair business practices.
• The Farmers' Alliances took over from the Grange as the primary voice of agrarian protest.
• Mary Lease, a prominent Alliance speaker, famously advised farmers to "raise less corn and more hell."
• The Alliances sought government regulation of railroads, currency inflation, among other reforms.

The Populist Revolt

• The Populist Party originated from the Farmers' Alliances in the 1890s.
• The Populists supported the subtreasury plan, government ownership of railroads, free silver coinage, and additional reforms.
• The economic crisis of the Panic of 1893 amplified the Populist cause.
• The 1896 election was between William McKinley (Republican) and William Jennings Bryan (Democrat and Populist).
• Bryan's "Cross of Gold" speech secured him the Democratic nomination.
• McKinley's victory inaugurated an era of Republican dominance.
• Following 1896, Populism waned, but some ideas were later adopted during the Progressive Era.

Depression and Division

• The Panic of 1893 initiated a severe economic depression.
• President Cleveland's commitment to laissez-faire policies proved inadequate to address the crisis.
• Labor unrest grew during the depression, demonstrated by the Pullman Strike of 1894.
• Federal troops suppressed the Pullman Strike, underscoring the government's pro-business stance.

McKinley and Prosperity

• The economy began to recover during McKinley's presidency.

• The Dingley Tariff of 1897 increased tariff rates to protect US manufacturers.

• The Gold Standard Act of 1900 officially put the United States on the gold standard.

• Chapter 20: The Age of Empire

Foundations of American Expansionism

• From its beginning, America had imperialistic intentions through expansion, evidenced by events like the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican-American War.
• The concept of the US as a global power gained traction in the late 19th century.
• Expansion advocates believed in acquiring colonies for resources, markets, and naval bases.
• Justifications for imperialism came from Social Darwinism and the concept of the "white man's burden".
• Josiah Strong asserted that Americans were obligated to spread Christianity and civilization.
• Alfred Thayer Mahan contended that naval power was crucial for national greatness, which influenced the US Navy's expansion.

The New Manifest Destiny

• The US intensified its influence in Latin America.
• Secretary of State James G. Blaine promoted Pan-Americanism, encouraging cooperation among Western Hemisphere nations.
• The US intervened in a border dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain, asserting its regional dominance.
• Hawaii experienced economic difficulties due to falling sugar prices.
• In 1893, American planters in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy.
• Initially, President Cleveland opposed annexation, but Hawaii was eventually annexed in 1898.

War With Spain

• Cuban rebels aimed for independence from Spain.
• American public sentiment leaned towards supporting the Cuban cause.
• Yellow journalism exaggerated Spanish atrocities, fueling calls for intervention.
• The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor heightened tensions.
• In April 1898, President McKinley requested a declaration of war from Congress.
• The Teller Amendment denied any intention of annexing Cuba.

"A Splendid Little War"

• The Spanish-American War was short and conclusive.
• The US Navy destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay (Philippines) and Santiago Bay (Cuba).
• Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders were prominent in the Battle of San Juan Hill.
• The US occupied Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
• The Treaty of Paris (1898) granted the US control over these territories.

The Question of the Philippines

• The US debated the annexation of the Philippines.
• Expansionists argued that the US had a responsibility to civilize and Christianize the Filipino people.
• Anti-imperialists claimed that annexation violated American principles of self-government and racial purity.
• The Senate narrowly approved the Treaty of Paris and annexed the Philippines.
• Filipino rebels, under Emilio Aguinaldo, initiated a war against American rule.
• The Philippine-American War was protracted, bloody, and brutal.
• Ultimately, the US suppressed the rebellion and established colonial rule over the Philippines.

Imperialism Debated

• Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and Jane Addams were among the prominent anti-imperialists.
• Their arguments stated that imperialism was immoral, costly, and a threat to American democracy.
• Imperialism was a key issue in the election of 1900, where McKinley defeated Bryan.

The Open Door in China

• European powers carved out spheres of influence in China.
• Secretary of State John Hay proposed the "Open Door" policy, ensuring equal trading rights for all nations in China.
• The Boxer Rebellion posed a threat to foreign interests in China.
• The US joined an international force to suppress the rebellion.

The American Economic Takeoff

• US manufacturing experienced rapid growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Mass production techniques, like the assembly line, increased efficiency.
• Industries were transformed by new technologies, including electricity and the internal combustion engine.
• Key sectors of the economy were dominated by large corporations.
• Urbanization and immigration were fueled by industrial growth.

Theodore Roosevelt and the Big Stick

• Roosevelt advocated for an active foreign policy.
• His motto was "Speak softly and carry a big stick".
• He intervened in Latin America to protect American interests and ensure stability.
• The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine affirmed the US's right to intervene in the domestic affairs of Latin American countries.
• The US constructed the Panama Canal, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
• Roosevelt mediated the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, earning the Nobel Peace Prize.

Civilizing the World

• The US had a contradictory policy of promoting democracy while also exerting control over other nations.

• American foreign policy often showed racial and cultural biases.

• US imperialism had a lasting global impact, influencing international relations and fueling anti-colonial movements.

• Chapter 21: The Progressive Era

The Progressive Impulse

• Progressivism was varied, addressing the social and economic problems from industrial society.
• Progressives believed in government intervention to regulate the economy and promote social justice.
• The Progressive Era was one of considerable reform and activism.
• Journalists who exposed corruption and social ills were known as muckrakers.
• Prominent muckrakers included Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil), Upton Sinclair (The Jungle), and Jacob Riis (poverty).

The Social Justice Movement

• Social justice progressives sought to address issues like poverty, child labor, and unsafe working conditions.
• Settlement houses, such as Hull House, offered social services to poor and immigrant communities.
• Jane Addams was a leading figure in the settlement house movement.
• Florence Kelley advocated for laws protecting women and children in the workplace.
• The Eighteenth Amendment (Prohibition) came about because of the campaign against alcohol abuse.

The Struggle for Woman Suffrage

• The women's suffrage movement gained momentum during the Progressive Era.
• Suffragists argued that women's right to vote was essential for basic justice.
• The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) lobbied for state-level suffrage laws.
• Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party (NWP) pushed for a constitutional amendment.
• The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) granted women the right to vote.

Reforming Government and Expanding Democracy

• Progressives sought to make government more efficient, responsive, and democratic.
• Reforms included the initiative, referendum, and recall, which gave citizens more direct control over government.
• The Seventeenth Amendment allowed for the direct election of senators.
• City managers and non-partisan commissions were implemented to improve local government.

Theodore Roosevelt and the Square Deal

• Roosevelt believed in using government to regulate big business and protect public interest.
• He advocated for a "Square Deal" for all Americans.
• Roosevelt used the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up monopolies, earning him the nickname "trustbuster."
• The Hepburn Act strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission's power to regulate railroads.
• The Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act protected consumers from unsafe products.
• Roosevelt was a conservationist, protecting millions of acres of wilderness.

The Troubled Succession

• William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt as president.
• Taft was more conservative than Roosevelt, alienating many progressives.
• Taft signed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, which raised tariff rates and angered reformers.
• Taft fired Gifford Pinchot, head of the Forest Service, further alienating progressives.
• In 1912, Roosevelt challenged Taft for the Republican nomination.

Woodrow Wilson and the New Freedom

• Woodrow Wilson won the election of 1912 as a progressive Democrat.
• Wilson advocated for a "New Freedom," emphasizing antitrust action and economic reform.
• The Underwood Tariff lowered tariff rates.
• The Federal Reserve Act created a national banking system.
• The Clayton Antitrust Act strengthened antitrust laws and protected labor unions.
• The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was established to regulate business practices.

The Limits of Progressivism

• Progressivism had limitations and contradictions.
• Progressives often held racial and ethnic biases.
• Jim Crow laws and segregation continued to oppress African Americans in the South.
• Some progressives supported eugenics and immigration restriction.
• The Progressive Era did not fully address issues of inequality and social injustice.

Post-Reconstruction politics were closely divided, marked by high voter turnout and strong party loyalty. The federal government's limited role allowed political machines to thrive, while the spoils system led to corruption and calls for civil service reform. The Pendleton Act of 1883 established a merit system for federal jobs.