Cell Wall Synthesis and Antibiotics

The process of building bacterial cell walls, involving monomer production, polymer formation, linkage, and cross-linking.

The basic building block of a polymer.

A long chain of monomers.

Connecting monomers together to form a polymer.

Connecting different polymer chains together.

Antibiotic inhibiting monomer production required for bacterial cell wall synthesis.

Antibiotics preventing bacterial cell wall elongation by interfering with peptide crosslinks.

Antibiotics that disrupt bacterial cell wall cross-linking, ultimately killing bacteria.

Bacterial enzyme that breaks down beta-lactam antibiotics, making them ineffective.

Penicillins susceptible to bacterial enzymes (beta-lactamases).

Examples of aminopenicillins.

Administered intravenously only.

Administered orally only.

Administered intramuscularly only.

Penicillins effective against Staphylococcus species, often resistant to other penicillins.

Penicillin resistant to bacterial enzymes.

Examples of antistaphylococcal penicillins.

Essential component of bacterial cell walls

The rigid outer layer of bacterial cells, crucial for shape and protection.

Infection of a newborn's eye acquired during birth.

Group of bacteria associated with infections of the heart, blood vessels, and/or other parts of the body.

Bacterial cause of meningitis, often affecting the lining of the brain and spinal cord.

The breakdown of fatty acids for energy production.

Organic acids with long hydrocarbon chains, used to make fats.

A three-carbon alcohol that forms part of triglycerides.

The metabolic process that breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA.

The key molecule in the fatty acid oxidation pathway.

The movement of lipids in the bloodstream using lipoproteins.

Lipoproteins transporting dietary fats.

Process transporting fatty acids from cytosol to mitochondria.

Inner compartment of mitochondria where fatty acid oxidation occurs.

The amount of ATP produced per fatty acid molecule.

Hormone initiating fatty acid mobilization.

Fat storage cells (in adipose tissue).

Enzyme breaking down triglycerides to fatty acids.

Metabolic pathway converting glucose to ATP.

Proteins that transport lipids in the blood.

The process of breaking down unsaturated fatty acids for energy. It differs from saturated fatty acid oxidation due to the presence of double bonds in the fatty acids, necessitating additional enzymatic steps.

An enzyme that rearranges the structure of a molecule by changing the position of its atoms without altering the overall molecular formula.

An enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of a molecule, increasing the number of electrons.

The breakdown process of fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms, producing propionyl-CoA as a final product, which is then converted to succinyl-CoA.

A crucial coenzyme in the isomerization step of odd-number fatty acid oxidation.

The energy generated during the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is less than the energy generated during the oxidation of saturated fatty acids because of the use of reducing power needed by the enzymes.

A three-carbon molecule that results from the breakdown of odd-number fatty acids.

A four-carbon molecule that's formed from propionyl-CoA through enzymatic steps, crucial in cellular metabolism.

Formation of succinyl-CoA, a metabolic intermediate, often from methylmalonyl-CoA

Essential nutrient synthesized by microbes, crucial for methylmalonyl-CoA mutase activity.

Malonyl-CoA, a fatty acid synthesis product, inhibits fatty acid transport into mitochondria for oxidation, regulated by glucose levels.

Alternative fuels for tissues like brain (when glucose is low), including acetoacetate, acetone, and β-hydroxybutyrate, produced from excess acetyl-CoA in the liver.

Condition resulting from the accumulation of ketone bodies (acids), affecting bodily functions, particularly when glucose is low.

The process of releasing fatty acids from adipose tissue for energy.

The breakdown of glycerol into intermediate molecules for energy production.

Converting fatty acids to a usable form for transport and oxidation.

Breaking down fatty acids to produce energy (ATP).

Production of ketone bodies from fatty acids (in times of low glucose).

Liver converts acetyl-CoA from fat breakdown into ketone bodies when oxaloacetate (OAA) levels are low, commonly during starvation or untreated diabetes.

Peripheral tissues (non-liver tissues) use ketone bodies as an alternative energy source by converting them into acetyl-CoA, bypassing the need for glucose.

These conditions lead to increased ketone body production due to insufficient oxaloacetate (OAA) and excessive fatty acid breakdown.

A serious complication of untreated diabetes, where high ketone levels lead to acidosis and can be a life-threatening condition, due to low insulin.

Acetyl-CoA produced from fat breakdown can either enter the TCA cycle or be converted into ketone bodies, depending on oxaloacetate levels.

OAA is crucial for the TCA cycle; its depletion in starvation diverts acetyl-CoA to ketone body production.

Fats are stored in adipocytes and serve as a readily available energy source when glucose is scarce.

A complex process involving enzymes, hormones and lipoprotein complexes to break down, release, and transport fats throughout the body.

These antibiotics combine a penicillin with a beta-lactamase inhibitor, which protects the penicillin from being broken down by bacterial enzymes, making it effective against a wider range of bacteria. This is advantageous in treating infections caused by bacteria resistant to traditional penicillins.

Different types of penicillins have varying effectiveness against different types of bacteria. This range of effectiveness, called the spectrum of activity, is determined by the drug's ability to bind to specific bacterial targets and its susceptibility to breakdown by bacterial enzymes.

These are the original penicillin molecules, often effective against gram-positive bacteria like Streptococcus and some Staphylococcus. However, they are vulnerable to bacterial enzymes (beta-lactamases) and have a narrow spectrum of activity.

These penicillins are specifically developed to be effective against Staphylococcus bacteria, which are often resistant to other penicillins. These drugs are resistant to bacterial enzymes, making them a preferred choice for treating staph infections.

These penicillins are developed to be effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a common cause of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs). This bacteria is often resistant to other antibiotics, making these penicillins crucial for treating severe infections.

These are examples of penicillin/beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations. They combine a penicillin known as ampicillin or amoxicillin with an inhibitor, sulbactam or clavulanate, respectively. This protects the penicillin from breakdown by bacterial enzymes, making them effective against a broader range of bacteria, including those resistant to traditional penicillins.

This is another important penicillin/beta-lactamase inhibitor combination. It combines piperacillin, a broad-spectrum penicillin, with tazobactam, an inhibitor. This combination makes it effective against a wide range of infections, including hospital-acquired infections caused by bacteria resistant to other antibiotics.

Bacteria that can survive and thrive in oxygen-deprived environments, often associated with foul-smelling infections.

A type of bacteria with a thick cell wall that retains a purple dye during a specific staining procedure, commonly associated with skin infections.

A type of bacteria with a thinner cell wall that loses purple dye and appears pink after a specific staining procedure, often associated with infections in the gut and urinary tract.

A group of antibiotics effective against certain types of bacteria (staph, strep, some Gram-negative bacteria), primarily used for surgical prophylaxis, skin infections, and urinary tract infections.

A group of antibiotics with broader spectrum activity (including some anaerobic bacteria) compared to 1st generation, used for more complex infections.

A group of antibiotics with the broadest spectrum of action, often used for severe infections with resistant bacteria, but have limited effectiveness against certain types of bacteria.

Giving antibiotics before surgery to prevent infections from developing.

A bacterial infection of the skin, often characterized by redness, swelling, and pain.

Infections affecting the urinary tract, often caused by bacteria.

Infections affecting the upper respiratory tract, including sinuses, throat, and ears.

A beta-lactam antibiotic similar to penicillin with a narrow spectrum, primarily used against Gram-negative bacteria in patients allergic to other beta-lactams, except ceftazidime and cefiderocol.

A class of broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotics with good activity against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, often used for severe infections.

A carbapenem antibiotic used for serious infections, typically administered intravenously, combined with cilastatin to prevent degradation in the kidneys.

A carbapenem antibiotic used for serious infections, usually administered intravenously, with a wider spectrum compared to imipenem, making it a good choice when imipenem cannot be used.

A carbapenem antibiotic with narrower spectrum compared to imipenem and meropenem, usually administered intravenously, effective against various bacteria but not active against Enterococci, P. aeruginosa, or Acinetobacter.

Ceftriaxone, a 3rd generation cephalosporin, can cause biliary sludging (blockage in the bile ducts) in neonates.

Cefepime is a 4th generation cephalosporin with a broad spectrum of activity, effective against MSSA, streptococci, and GNR including Pseudomonas. It is eliminated by the kidneys.

Ceftaroline is a cephalosporin specifically designed to fight MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and other bacteria. It is eliminated by the kidneys.

These combinations use a cephalosporin antibiotic paired with a beta-lactamase inhibitor to prevent the breakdown of the antibiotic by bacterial enzymes.

This combination features a 3rd generation cephalosporin (ceftolozane) with enhanced potency against Pseudomonas, protected by the inhibitor tazobactam.

This combination uses a 3rd generation cephalosporin (ceftazidime) with the inhibitor avibactam, effective against GNRs, particularly Klebsiella pneumoniae.

This unique cephalosporin combines a typical cephalosporin structure with a siderophore, which binds to iron and is transported actively into bacteria.

These antibiotics are used for serious infections, including those that are difficult to treat with other antibiotics. They are frequently used for hospital-acquired infections, mixed infections, and infections that are resistant to other antibiotics.

These combinations combine a carbapenem with a molecule that protects it from being destroyed by certain bacterial enzymes, making them effective against a wider range of bacteria.

Vaborbactam is a beta-lactamase inhibitor that works in combination with carbapenems like meropenem and imipenem, expanding their activity against resistant bacteria, especially Enterobacterales.

Relebactam is a beta-lactamase inhibitor that works in combination with imipenem, expanding its activity against resistant bacteria, especially Enterobacterales.

Carbapenems are broad-spectrum antibiotics that are effective against a wide variety of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.

Beta-lactam antibiotics include penicillin and its many derivatives (like amoxicillin and methicillin), cephalosporins (categorized by generations 1-4), carbapenems (like imipenem, meropenem, and ertapenem), and monobactams (like aztreonam).

Hypersensitivity reactions describe adverse immune responses to medication or other substances, classified into four main types: Type I (immediate), Type II (cytotoxic), Type III (immune complex), and Type IV (delayed).

Beta-lactams, like penicillins and cephalosporins, share a similar chemical structure, which can lead to cross-reactivity, meaning an allergic reaction to one class could result in reaction to another.

These combinations include a penicillin antibiotic alongside a beta-lactamase inhibitor. This protects the penicillin from being broken down by bacterial enzymes (beta-lactamases), extending its effectiveness against a wider range of bacteria, including those resistant to traditional penicillins.

Cephalosporins are classified into generations (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th) based on their spectrum of activity. First generation cephalosporins are effective against Gram-positive bacteria, while later generations have broader activity, including some Gram-negative bacteria.