Cell Biology and Genetics Overview

Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic: No nucleus, smaller (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Has a nucleus, larger (e.g., plant and animal cells).
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Contains DNA.
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, energy production.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough (with ribosomes) and Smooth (lipid synthesis).
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.
- Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for breakdown.

DNA Structure: Double helix, composed of nucleotides (A, T, C, G).
Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment.
- Genotype vs. Phenotype.
- Dominant and recessive alleles.
Punnett Squares: Tool for predicting genetic variation in offspring.
Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence, can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.

Natural Selection: Mechanism of evolution; survival of the fittest.
Adaptation: Traits that enhance survival and reproduction.
Speciation: Formation of new and distinct species through evolution.
Evidence of Evolution: Fossil records, comparative anatomy, and molecular biology.

Ecosystems: Communities of living organisms interacting with their environment.
Biomes: Large geographic biotic communities (e.g., tundra, rainforest).
Food Chains and Webs: Energy flow between producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Population Dynamics: Factors affecting population size (birth/death rates, immigration/emigration).

Systems of the Body:
- Circulatory: Transports blood and nutrients.
- Respiratory: Gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
- Digestive: Breaks down food for nutrients.
- Nervous: Coordinates body activities.
- Endocrine: Hormone secretion for regulation.
Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions.

Photosynthesis: Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose) using chlorophyll.
Plant Structure: Roots, stems, leaves—each serving specific functions in growth and nutrient uptake.
Reproduction:
- Asexual (e.g., vegetative propagation).
- Sexual (flowering plants, pollination, seed dispersal).

Microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
Role in Ecosystems: Decomposition, nutrient cycling, and symbiotic relationships.
Pathogens: Disease-causing agents; importance of vaccines and antibiotics.

Genetic Engineering: Manipulation of an organism's DNA to achieve desired traits.
CRISPR Technology: A method for editing genomes with precision.
Applications: Agriculture (GMOs), medicine (gene therapy), and environmental conservation.

Cell Theory: Core principles include that all living organisms are made up of cells, the cell is the fundamental unit of life, and all cells originate from existing cells.
Cell Types:
- Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and are generally smaller, such as bacteria.
- Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and are larger, found in plants and animals.
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Stores genetic information (DNA).
- Mitochondria: Known as the powerhouse, responsible for energy (ATP) production.
- Ribosomes: Sites for protein synthesis, found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Comprised of rough ER (with ribosomes) for protein synthesis and smooth ER for lipid production.
- Golgi Apparatus: Involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins for secretion or use within the cell.
- Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for breaking down waste materials.

DNA Structure: Composed of a double helix formed by nucleotides with four bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).
Mendelian Genetics: Introduces concepts such as the Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment, distinguishing between genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable traits).
Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles: Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles in phenotype expression.
Punnett Squares: A graphical tool for predicting genetic variation in offspring from cross-breeding.
Mutations: Variations in the DNA sequence that can lead to beneficial, harmful, or neutral effects on an organism.

Natural Selection: A process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully.
Adaptation: Traits developed over time that improve an organism's chances of survival and reproduction.
Speciation: The evolutionary process of forming new and distinct species.
Evidence of Evolution: Supported by fossil records, comparative anatomy among species, and molecular biology findings.

Ecosystems: Interactions among various living organisms and their physical environment.
Biomes: Specific geographic regions characterized by distinct communities of plants and animals, such as tundra or rainforest.
Food Chains and Webs: Illustrate the flow of energy within an ecosystem, connecting producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Population Dynamics: Influences on population size, including birth and death rates, alongside immigration and emigration patterns.

Body Systems:
- Circulatory System: Responsible for blood and nutrient transport throughout the body.
- Respiratory System: Facilitates gas exchange, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Digestive System: Breaks down food to extract nutrients for the body.
- Nervous System: Coordinates and regulates bodily functions and responses.
- Endocrine System: Manages hormone release for regulating various body processes.
Homeostasis: The regulation of stable internal conditions to maintain optimal functioning, despite external changes.

Photosynthesis: The biochemical process that allows plants to convert sunlight into chemical energy (glucose) using chlorophyll.
Plant Structure: Various components like roots (nutrient uptake), stems (support), and leaves (photosynthesis) each play critical roles.
Reproduction: Involves both asexual methods (e.g., vegetative propagation) and sexual methods (e.g., flowering plants, pollination, and seed dispersal).

Microorganisms: Include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, all playing vital roles in ecosystems.
Ecosystem Role: Microorganisms are essential for decomposition, nutrient cycling, and establishing symbiotic relationships.
Pathogens: Microorganisms that cause disease, highlighting the importance of vaccines and antibiotics in healthcare.

Genetic Engineering: The science of altering an organism's DNA for specific purposes or traits.
CRISPR Technology: A revolutionary tool used for precise genome editing.
Applications: Extensive uses across fields such as agriculture (genetically modified organisms), medicine (gene therapy), and efforts in environmental conservation.