Cell Biology and Genetics Quiz

Cell Theory
- All living organisms are composed of cells.
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cell Types
- Prokaryotic: No nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Nucleus present (e.g., plant and animal cells).
Cell Organelles
- Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, ATP production.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis; rough ER has ribosomes; smooth ER does not.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
- Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for waste breakdown.

DNA Structure
- Double helix composed of nucleotides (A, T, C, G).
- Base pairing: A-T, C-G.
Gene Expression
- Transcription: DNA to RNA.
- Translation: RNA to protein.
Mendelian Genetics
- Traits are inherited through alleles (dominant and recessive).
- Punnett squares predict genetic crosses.

Natural Selection
- Mechanism of evolution where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.
Speciation
- Process by which new species arise.
- Can occur through allopatric (geographic) or sympatric (same area) mechanisms.

Ecosystems
- Community of living organisms and their physical environment.
- Energy flow: Producers (plants) → Consumers (herbivores, carnivores) → Decomposers (fungi, bacteria).
Biomes
- Large ecological areas (e.g., forests, deserts, tundras) defined by climate and vegetation.

Body Systems
- Circulatory: Transports blood, nutrients, gases.
- Respiratory: Gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
- Digestive: Breakdown of food for nutrient absorption.
- Nervous: Controls and coordinates body activities through signals.
Homeostasis
- Maintenance of stable internal conditions (e.g., temperature, pH).

Photosynthesis
- Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
- Occurs in chloroplasts; equation: CO2 + H2O + light → C6H12O6 + O2.
Plant Structures
- Roots: Anchor and absorb water/nutrients.
- Stems: Support and transport materials.
- Leaves: Main site of photosynthesis.

Microorganisms
- Bacteria: Prokaryotic, can be beneficial or pathogenic.
- Viruses: Acellular, require a host to replicate.
- Fungi: Eukaryotic, decomposers, can be multicellular (mushrooms) or unicellular (yeast).

Applications
- Genetic engineering: Manipulation of DNA for desired traits.
- Cloning: Producing genetically identical organisms.
- CRISPR: Gene-editing technology for precise genetic modifications.

Cell Theory:
- All living organisms consist of cells, establishing them as the fundamental unit of life.
- Cells arise only from existing cells, ensuring continuity of life.
Cell Types:
- Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus (e.g., bacteria), whereas eukaryotic cells have a defined nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells).
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus houses the genetic material (DNA).
- Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production, acting as the powerhouses of the cell.
- Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER has ribosomes for protein synthesis, while smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis.
- Golgi Apparatus functions to modify, sort, and package proteins for distribution.
- Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials.

DNA Structure:
- DNA forms a double helix made of nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
- Base pairing rules dictate A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
Gene Expression:
- Transcription is the process of converting DNA to RNA.
- Translation involves synthesizing proteins from RNA.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Traits are inherited via alleles, which can be dominant or recessive.
- Punnett squares are tools used to predict outcomes of genetic crosses.

Natural Selection:
- This mechanism drives evolution, enabling better-adapted organisms to survive and reproduce.
Speciation:
- New species arise through processes such as allopatric (due to geographic separation) and sympatric (same habitat) mechanisms.

Ecosystems:
- An ecosystem consists of living organisms and their physical environment, facilitating energy flow from producers to consumers and decomposers.
Biomes:
- Defined large ecological regions (e.g., forests, deserts, tundras) characterized by specific climate and vegetation types.

Body Systems:
- Circulatory system transports blood, nutrients, and gases throughout the body.
- Respiratory system facilitates gas exchange, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Digestive system breaks down food for nutrient absorption.
- Nervous system manages and coordinates bodily functions through electrical signals.
Homeostasis:
- Refers to the maintenance of stable internal conditions, such as temperature and pH, essential for survival.

Photosynthesis:
- Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose) occurs in chloroplasts.
- Photosynthesis equation: CO2 + H2O + light → C6H12O6 + O2.
Plant Structures:
- Roots anchor plants and absorb water and nutrients.
- Stems provide support and facilitate material transport.
- Leaves are the primary sites for photosynthesis.

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria are prokaryotic, existing as either beneficial organisms or pathogens.
- Viruses are acellular entities that require a host to replicate and cannot reproduce independently.
- Fungi are eukaryotic organisms functioning as decomposers; they can be unicellular (e.g., yeast) or multicellular (e.g., mushrooms).

Applications:
- Genetic engineering involves the manipulation of DNA to produce organisms with desired traits.
- Cloning produces genetically identical organisms through somatic cell nuclear transfer techniques.
- CRISPR is an advanced gene-editing technology allowing for precise modifications in the genetic material.