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Questions and Answers
Which blood type is considered the universal recipient?
What is the primary purpose of RhoGAM injections during pregnancy?
Which of the following blood types has neither Anti-A nor Anti-B antibodies?
What defines O- blood type's role in blood transfusions?
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Which blood vessels are primarily responsible for carrying oxygenated blood away from the heart?
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What is the primary function of albumins in plasma?
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Which component is responsible for hemostasis following a vascular injury?
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How do intrinsic factors differ from extrinsic factors in blood clotting?
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What is a significant consequence of hypoproteinemia?
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Which blood type can accept blood from both type A and type O donors?
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What physiological condition is characterized by dangerously extended heart contractions?
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Which term describes a chaotic contraction of the myocardium that can potentially be life-threatening?
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Which of the following best describes the condition of arteries during vasodilation?
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What range in beats per minute (bpm) defines bradycardia?
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Which type of hypertension is known for having an unknown cause?
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Which of the following describes an aneurysm?
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What is the correct sequence of blood flow from the aorta returning to the heart?
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Which pulse site is located at the wrist?
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What role do the chordae tendineae play in the functionality of the heart valves?
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Which of the following best describes the systemic circuit?
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Which structure of the heart is primarily responsible for initiating the electrical impulse for a heartbeat?
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What is the main consequence of myocardial infarction (MI)?
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Which valves are responsible for preventing backflow from the ventricles to the atria?
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Which wave of the ECG represents ventricular depolarization?
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What is the primary location of the heart within the body?
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What characteristic is associated with hyperkalemia in terms of myocardial contractions?
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Which condition is characterized by a deficiency of intrinsic factor leading to a reduced RBC count?
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What is the main function of heparin produced by basophils?
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Which type of white blood cell is responsible for producing antibodies?
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Hypoxia refers to which condition in the body?
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What is the average lifespan of a red blood cell (RBC)?
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What process allows white blood cells to exit the bloodstream to reach infected tissues?
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Which of the following components is NOT a vitamin or mineral required for healthy RBC production?
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What is indicated by thrombocytopenia?
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Which pigment is responsible for the greenish coloration observed in biliverdin?
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In what location does hematopoiesis primarily occur after birth?
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Study Notes
Blood Components
- Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood.
- Formed elements include blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets).
- Blood is about 3-4 times thicker than water.
- The normal blood pH is around 7.35-7.45.
- Average male blood volume is 5-6 liters and average female blood volume is 4-5 liters.
- Hematocrit (HCT) is the percentage of red blood cells in the blood. The normal range for males is 40-54% and for females 35-46%.
- Hematopoiesis/Hemopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Hemoglobin is the red pigment of blood.
- Each molecule of hemoglobin has 4 protein chains, each with one iron ion (Fe++).
- Oxygen binds to the iron ions in hemoglobin.
- Oxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin carrying oxygen (bright red) and deoxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin without oxygen (darker red).
- Red blood cells have an average lifespan of 120 days.
- Hypoxia is a prolonged oxygen deficiency.
- Cyanosis is a blue discoloration of the skin due to low oxygen levels.
- After birth, all blood cells are produced in red bone marrow.
- Red blood cells eject their nucleus before entering the bloodstream to carry more oxygen (Nuclear Extrusion).
- Polycythemia is a condition of too many red blood cells.
- Intrinsic factor is produced in the stomach and is needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine.
- Iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, and vitamin C are important for healthy red blood cell production.
- Anemia is a condition of too few red blood cells or a reduction of hemoglobin.
- Biliverdin is a greenish pigment and bilirubin is an orange pigment, both produced during the breakdown of red blood cells.
- EPO (erythropoietin) production increases with strenuous exercise or increased altitude.
- During fetal development, red blood cells are produced in the yolk sac, liver, and spleen.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Diapedesis is the process of white blood cells leaving the bloodstream to enter tissues to fight infection.
- Chemotaxis is the attraction of white blood cells to damaged cells due to chemical signals.
- Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
- Agranulocytes include lymphocytes (T cells, B cells, NK cells) and monocytes.
- Basophils produce heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine (promotes inflammation).
- Eosinophils fight parasitic worms.
- Neutrophils are the most numerous type of white blood cell and are a major part of the innate immune system.
- Lymphocytes are involved in adaptive immunity. T cells directly attack infected cells, B cells produce antibodies, and NK cells destroy infected cells.
- Monocytes are the largest white blood cell and become macrophages when they leave the bloodstream.
- Leukopenia is a low white blood cell count and leukocytosis is a high white blood cell count.
- A differential white blood cell count measures the levels of different types of white blood cells.
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Megakaryocytes are large cells that produce platelets.
- Platelets release serotonin, which causes constriction of smooth muscles in injured blood vessels.
- Thrombocytosis is a high platelet count and thrombocytopenia is a low platelet count.
- Petechiae are small, bruise-like spots on the skin, mucous membranes, or other tissues.
Plasma Proteins
- Plasma proteins are the most abundant blood solute.
- Plasma proteins contribute to osmotic pressure, helping regulate fluid movement.
- Hypoproteinemia is a low plasma protein concentration that can lead to edema.
- Albumins are the smallest and most abundant type of plasma protein, synthesized in the liver.
- Globulins include antibodies and help transport lipids in the blood.
- Fibrinogen is involved in blood clotting.
Hemostasis
- Hemostasis is the process of stopping bleeding.
- It involves three steps: vascular spasm (constriction of blood vessels), platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation (clotting).
- Vitamin K is needed for blood clotting.
- Extrinsic clotting factors are activated by events outside of the blood vessel, such as broken blood vessels or damaged tissues.
- Intrinsic clotting factors are activated by events inside the blood vessel, such as foreign substances.
- Serum is plasma without blood clotting factors.
- A thrombus is an unwanted blood clot.
- An embolus is a piece of a clot that breaks off and travels through the bloodstream.
Blood Typing
- An antigen is any substance that triggers the immune system.
- An antibody is a Y-shaped protein produced by B cells in response to an antigen.
- Blood groups are determined by the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
- The ABO blood typing system is based on the A and B antigens. Type A blood has the A antigen, type B blood has the B antigen, type AB blood has both A and B antigens, and type O blood has neither A nor B antigen.
- Rh factor is another blood antigen. Individuals with the Rh antigen are Rh positive (Rh+) and those without it are Rh negative (Rh-).
- Universal recipient: AB+
- Universal donor: O-
- Erythroblastosis Fetalis (Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn) can occur when an Rh- mother has an Rh+ baby.
- RhoGAM injections are given to Rh- mothers to prevent the development of anti-Rh antibodies.
The Cardiovascular System: Overview
- Veins carry blood towards the heart, usually deoxygenated blood.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart, usually oxygenated blood.
- Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that connect arteries and veins and are responsible for gas exchange.
- The pulmonary circuit involves the heart and lungs, where oxygen is loaded into the blood and carbon dioxide unloaded.
- The systemic circuit involves the heart and the body, where oxygen is unloaded and carbon dioxide loaded into the blood.
- The heart is located in the mediastinum, slightly toward the left.
- The pericardium is a fluid filled sac around the heart.
- The epicardium (visceral pericardium) is the layer of the pericardium touching the heart.
- The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart.
- The myocardium is the heart muscle.
- The atria are the upper chambers of the heart and the ventricles are the lower chambers.
- The septum divides the heart into right and left sides.
- The apex is the bottom point of the heart and the base is the top.
- The superior and inferior vena cava are the largest veins.
- The aorta is the largest artery.
- Valves prevent the backflow of blood.
Heart Valves
- Atrioventricular (AV) valves are located between the atria and ventricles: right AV valve (tricuspid) and left AV valve (bicuspid or mitral).
- Semilunar valves are located at the exits of the ventricles: the aortic valve (blood enters the aorta) and the pulmonary valve (blood enters the lungs).
- Chordae tendineae attach to the AV valves, preventing them from moving backwards.
Heart Conditions
- Ischemia is a blockage of blood flow to tissue.
- Infarction is tissue death due to blocked blood flow.
- Angina pectoris is chest pain.
- Myocardial infarction (MI) is a heart attack.
Conduction Through the Heart
- The SA Node is the natural pacemaker of the heart.
- The conduction system includes:
- SA node
- AV Node
- Bundle of His (AV Bundle) located in the interventricular septum
- Purkinjie Fibers (outer ventricular walls)
ECG
- An electrocardiogram (ECG) records electrical activity of the heart.
- P Wave: atrial depolarization (atria contract)
- QRS Wave: Ventricular depolarization (ventricles contract)
- T Wave: Ventricular repolarization
Heart Sounds
- The heart makes sounds with the closing of valves.
- "Lubb" is the sound of AV valves closing (S1).
- "Dupp" is the sound of semilunar valves closing (S2).
Electrolyte Imbalances
- Hyperkalemia is elevated blood potassium levels, which can weaken heart contractions.
- Hypokalemia is low blood potassium levels, which can lead to an abnormal heart rhythm.
- Hypercalcemia is high blood calcium levels, which can lead to prolonged heart contractions.
- Hypocalcemia is low blood calcium levels, which can depress heart action.
Blood Vessels & Blood Pressure
- Vasoconstriction is a narrowing of blood vessels.
- Vasodilation is a widening of blood vessels.
- Systole is the contraction phase of the heart.
- Diastole is the relaxation phase of the heart.
- Blood pressure is the force of blood against artery walls.
- Pulse is the rhythmic expansion and recoiling of artery walls.
- Apical pulse is measured with a stethoscope.
Pulse Sites
- Facial: Chin
- Carotid: Neck
- Brachial: Arm
- Radial: Wrist
- Femoral: Groin
- Popliteal: Behind the Knee
- Dorsalis Pedis: On Top of Foot
- Posterior Tibial: Back of Ankle
Heart Conditions
- Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fatty material or plaque in arteries.
- Aneurysm is a weakened arterial wall that bulges.
- Age-related changes are most evident in the arteries.
- Primary/Essential/Idiopathic hypertension is high blood pressure with an unknown cause.
- Secondary Hypertension is high blood pressure caused by other health conditions.
Blood Flow Through the Heart
- Blood flows from the aorta → arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → superior/inferior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve (tricuspid) → right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left AV valve (bicuspid/mitral) → left ventricle → aortic valve → aorta.
Sides of the Heart
- Right side: deoxygenated blood
- Left side: oxygenated blood
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Description
Explore the intricacies of blood composition, including plasma and formed elements. Delve into the fascinating world of red blood cells, their structure, function, and lifespan, alongside critical terms such as hematocrit and hemoglobin. This quiz covers essential concepts of human physiology related to blood.
