Biology Chapter: RNA to Protein Translation

A protein that helps RNA polymerase bind to a specific DNA sequence (promoter) and initiate transcription. It recognizes consensus sequences at the -10 and -35 positions relative to the start of the RNA transcript.

A sigma factor that ensures the essential genes and pathways of a cell are continuously transcribed. It's like the cell's 'default' setting for gene expression.

The first stage of transcription where RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, unwinds the DNA, and adds the first RNA nucleotide.

The process where RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, using the DNA template as a guide.

The process where RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA after the RNA transcript is complete.

A method of transcription termination that relies on a protein called Rho and a strong pause site at the 3' end of the gene. It doesn't require the NusA protein.

A method of transcription termination that uses a GC-rich region of RNA, 4-8 consecutive U residues, and the NusA protein.

A protein involved in transcription termination. It helps RNA polymerase recognize termination signals and facilitates the detachment process.

The process of converting the genetic code in mRNA into a protein sequence. This involves decoding mRNA codons and linking corresponding amino acids to build a polypeptide chain.

Molecular machines that read mRNA and assemble proteins. They provide a platform for the interaction of mRNA and tRNA, enabling the translation of genetic information into protein.

A triplet of nucleotides on mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or a stop signal. Each codon codes for a specific amino acid or signals the end of protein synthesis.

The set of rules that determines how codons are translated into amino acids. It's universal for most organisms, meaning the same codons code for the same amino acids across different species.

An enzyme responsible for creating RNA transcripts from a DNA template. It acts like a copy machine, making RNA copies of the DNA instructions.

The essential part of RNA polymerase that performs the elongation phase of transcription, adding nucleotides to the growing RNA chain.

The complete form of RNA polymerase, containing both the core polymerase and the sigma factor. It's the fully equipped enzyme that can initiate and complete the transcription process.

A DNA sequence with a high proportion of guanine (G) and cytosine (C) nucleotides. Forms a stem-loop structure in RNA.

A secondary structure formed in RNA when a single-stranded RNA molecule folds back on itself to form a double-stranded stem with an unpaired loop at the end.

The temporary halting of transcription when RNA polymerase encounters a GC-rich sequence, resulting in a stem-loop structure that blocks further nucleotide addition.

The time it takes for half of the mRNA molecules in a cell to degrade.

A cellular structure in bacteria responsible for degrading most RNA molecules. Composed of RNase, RNA helicase, and metabolic enzymes.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules act as adaptors, attaching to amino acids and delivering them to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

tRNA molecules have a cloverleaf shape (2D) with three loops, or a boomerang shape (3D).

The interaction between a three-base sequence on mRNA (codon) and a complementary three-base sequence on tRNA (anticodon), ensuring the correct amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain.

The process of attaching a specific amino acid to a tRNA molecule, catalyzed by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.

Enzymes responsible for charging tRNA molecules with the correct amino acid. Each cell typically has 20 of these enzymes, one for each amino acid.

Unusual bases in tRNA molecules that are modified post-transcription by specific enzymes. These modifications provide stability and protect tRNA from degradation by RNases.

A complex molecular machine composed of two subunits containing proteins and rRNA. Its main function is to translate the mRNA code into the amino acid sequences of proteins.

Codons that signal the start of translation. They mark the beginning of a protein-coding sequence and establish the correct reading frame for the mRNA. AUG is the most common start codon, but others exist.

A purine-rich sequence located upstream of the start codon in bacterial mRNA. It helps position the start codon correctly in the ribosome's P site.

The ribosome is a ribozyme, meaning that its catalytic activity is carried out by rRNA, specifically the 23S rRNA in the large ribosomal subunit.

The first stage of protein synthesis, where the two ribosomal subunits come together, and the first amino acid is positioned in the ribosome's P site.

The process of assembling the ribosome complex (consisting of the 50S and 30S ribosomal subunits, mRNA, and the initiator tRNAfMet) at the start codon of the mRNA; requires initiation factors (IF1, IF2, and IF3) in E.coli.

The process of sequentially adding amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain according to the mRNA codons; requires elongation factors (EF-Tu and EF-G) that cycle on and off the ribosome.

The process of releasing the completed protein from the ribosome and recycling the ribosomal subunits; occurs when a stop codon is reached in the mRNA; involves release factors (RF1 or RF2).

A structure in which multiple ribosomes translate the same mRNA molecule, enhancing protein production efficiency; protects the mRNA from degradation and allows for rapid synthesis of multiple protein copies.

Simultaneous transcription and translation of a gene, occurring in bacteria and archaea where there is no nuclear membrane; translation begins before transcription is complete.

In rod-shaped bacteria, coupled transcription and translation occurs near the nucleoid, while translation of fully transcribed mRNA takes place at the cell poles.

Modifications to a protein after translation, often involving folding to the correct 3D structure or regulating activity.

The process of a protein acquiring a 3D structure, crucial for its function; often assisted by chaperone proteins.

Changes made to a protein after it's been synthesized by ribosomes. These alterations often alter the protein's function, location, or stability.

A modified amino acid that is sometimes attached to the beginning of a protein. It can influence protein degradation by methionine aminopeptidase/deformylase.

Adding a phosphate group to a protein can turn its 'switch' on or off, altering its activity and influencing downstream signaling pathways.

Attachment of sugar molecules can help proteins stick to surfaces, form biofilms, and even influence virulence in bacteria.

Adding adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) to a protein can regulate its activity, often by turning it on or off like a switch.