Biology Chapter on Molecular Genetics
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Questions and Answers

What is the main purpose of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?

  • To synthesize recombinant DNA
  • To amplify a specific portion of DNA (correct)
  • To cleave DNA molecules
  • To sequence DNA

Which of the following is NOT one of the four essential elements for PCR?

  • DNA polymerase enzyme
  • RNA polymerase (correct)
  • Primers
  • Nucleoside triphosphates

What is recombinant DNA primarily composed of?

  • Segments from one source only
  • Segments from multiple organisms (correct)
  • Only synthesized segments
  • Purely synthetic chemical compounds

Which enzyme is required to create recombinant DNA?

<p>Restriction enzyme (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones?

<p>Catabolism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In metabolism, what is characterized by energy absorption?

<p>Anabolism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does an anabolic process generally do?

<p>Absorbs energy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a function of nucleoside triphosphates in PCR?

<p>To supply the building blocks for new DNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which base pair forms between adenine and thymine in DNA?

<p>2 hydrogen bonds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during a deletion mutation?

<p>One or more nucleotides are lost from a DNA molecule. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of DNA replication?

<p>To create identical copies of DNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a silent mutation?

<p>It has a negligible effect on the organism. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During transcription, what is synthesized from the DNA template?

<p>Messenger RNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following distinguishes RNA from DNA?

<p>RNA contains ribose as its monosaccharide (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of a mutation that causes the production of a stop codon?

<p>The protein will be synthesized incompletely. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which bond joins the nucleotides in the new DNA strand during replication?

<p>Phosphodiester bonds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process that combines DNA segments using the DNA ligase enzyme?

<p>Ligation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the leading and lagging strands is correct?

<p>Only the leading strand grows continuously (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can result from a mutation that produces one different amino acid in a protein?

<p>Significant change in protein function. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bond forms between cytosine and guanine in DNA?

<p>3 hydrogen bonds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes cystic fibrosis?

<p>Defective cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key function of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?

<p>To provide the site for polypeptide assembly (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of EcoRI in genetic engineering?

<p>To cut DNA at a specific location. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common result follows a mutation associated with sickle cell anemia?

<p>Change in hemoglobin structure affecting red blood cells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main functions of Vitamin K?

<p>Promotes blood clotting (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of vitamins are absorbed with dietary fat?

<p>Fat-soluble vitamins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition can Vitamin K help to prevent?

<p>Arteriosclerosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin is involved in releasing energy from foods and is also important for healthy skin?

<p>Riboflavin (B2) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan?

<p>Niacin (B3) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fate of excess water-soluble vitamins in the body?

<p>Excreted through urine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin is specifically involved in metabolism and enzyme activity?

<p>Pantothenic Acid (B5) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about fat-soluble vitamins?

<p>They can become toxic when taken in excess. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main metabolic function of the Cori Cycle?

<p>To facilitate the conversion of lactate to glucose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about gluconeogenesis is correct?

<p>It has several irreversible steps. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the Cori Cycle, what happens to lactate in the liver?

<p>It is converted to glucose. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of plasma glucose turnover may be accounted for by the Cori Cycle?

<p>40% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In skeletal muscle under low oxygen conditions, what is glucose converted to?

<p>Lactate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many ATP are utilized in converting a fatty acid into fatty acyl CoA?

<p>2 ATP (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily transported to the liver from skeletal muscle during the Cori Cycle?

<p>Lactate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the starting substrate for gluconeogenesis in the liver?

<p>Lactate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of pyridoxine (B6) in the body?

<p>Protein metabolism and red blood cell formation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin is also known as Vitamin H?

<p>Biotin (B7) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does sodium play in bodily functions?

<p>Fluid balance regulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical function of cobalamin (B12)?

<p>Motor and cognitive development (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of folate (B9) in pregnancy?

<p>It promotes red blood cell formation and lowers neural tube defect risks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mineral is necessary for iron absorption?

<p>Copper (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does biotin (B7) primarily aid in?

<p>Releasing energy from carbohydrates (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of sulfur in the body?

<p>Building and repairing DNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Base Pairing in DNA

Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) with 2 hydrogen bonds, and Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) with 3 hydrogen bonds.

DNA Replication

The process where DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division. Each new double helix contains one original strand and one new strand.

DNA Replication Direction

DNA replication occurs in one direction, from the 3' end to the 5' end of the template strand.

Leading vs. Lagging Strand

During DNA replication, the leading strand is synthesized continuously, and the lagging strand is synthesized in smaller fragments, called Okazaki fragments.

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DNA to RNA (Transcription)

Copying genetic information from DNA to RNA. The RNA molecule then carries this information to the site of protein synthesis.

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Deletion Mutation

Loss of one or more nucleotides from a DNA molecule.

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Insertion Mutation

Adding one or more nucleotides to a DNA molecule.

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RNA Structure

RNA is a single-stranded molecule, smaller than DNA. It contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, and uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).

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rRNA Function

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of ribosomes, which are the sites where proteins are assembled.

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Silent Mutation

Mutation with little or no effect on an organism because the resulting amino acid is the same.

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Protein Synthesis (Translation)

Using the information in RNA to build a specific protein, with a specific amino acid sequence.

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Substitution Mutation

Replacing one nucleotide with another.

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Genetic Disease

Disease arising from a mutation passed through generations, resulting in protein deficiency or malfunction.

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Sickle Cell Anemia

Fatal disease resulting from a single amino acid substitution in hemoglobin.

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Cystic Fibrosis

Disease with thick lung mucus & low pancreatic secretions, caused by defective CFTR protein.

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Galactosemia

Disease from a lack of an enzyme for galactose metabolism, potentially leading to mental retardation.

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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A method to amplify a specific DNA segment, creating millions of copies.

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Recombinant DNA

Synthetic DNA with segments from multiple sources.

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PCR elements

DNA segment to copy, two primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleoside triphosphates.

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Recombinant DNA elements

Original DNA molecule, DNA-cutting enzyme, and a gene from a different organism.

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Metabolism

All chemical reactions in an organism.

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Catabolism

Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.

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Anabolism

Building large molecules from smaller ones, absorbing energy.

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Digestion (implied)

Part of catabolism, converting food into usable energy.

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Vitamin K Function

Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting, bone health, and preventing calcium buildup in arteries. It also protects cells from damage.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamin Absorption

Fat-soluble vitamins require bile and dietary fat for absorption. They are absorbed in the duodenum and transported in chylomicrons, which are fat-carrying particles.

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Water-Soluble Vitamin Absorption

Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed into the bloodstream directly through the portal vein. They are mainly absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum.

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Thiamin (B1) Function

Thiamin is crucial for energy release from food, promoting healthy cardiovascular and nervous system function, and maintaining a normal appetite.

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Riboflavin (B2) Function

Riboflavin plays a vital role in energy release from food, maintaining good vision and healthy skin, and converting tryptophan into niacin.

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Niacin (B3) Function

Niacin is involved in energy production, enzyme activity, digestion, and promoting normal appetite, healthy skin, and nerves.

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Pantothenic Acid (B5) Function

Pantothenic acid is essential for energy production.

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Vitamin Deficiency

Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet. Deficiencies can lead to various health issues.

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Pyridoxine (B6)

A vitamin crucial for protein metabolism, red blood cell formation, and nerve transmission. It also helps in insulin and hemoglobin production.

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Biotin (B7)

This vitamin is known as Vitamin H or Coenzyme R. It aids in energy release from carbohydrates and the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.

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Folate (B9)

Necessary for red blood cell formation and the prevention of neural tube defects. It also plays a role in protein metabolism and controlling homocysteine levels.

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Cobalamin (B12)

A vitamin essential for building genetic material and the production of normal red blood cells. It's crucial for the nervous system and motor/cognitive development.

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Iron

A trace mineral found in hemoglobin, responsible for carrying oxygen in red blood cells. It plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and development.

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Copper

A trace mineral essential for iron absorption and incorporation into hemoglobin. It's needed for tyrosinase activity.

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Sodium

An essential mineral for proper fluid balance and blood volume control. It's also necessary for nerve transmission and muscle contraction.

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Sulfur

A mineral found in protein molecules. It aids in gene regulation, DNA repair, and metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.

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Gluconeogenesis

The process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like pyruvate, lactate, and glycerol. This occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys to maintain blood glucose levels.

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Irreversible Reactions in Glycolysis

Certain steps in glycolysis are irreversible, meaning they require different enzymes for the reverse reaction during gluconeogenesis. These steps involve energy release and are not simply reversed.

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Cori Cycle

A metabolic cycle involving the liver and skeletal muscle where lactate produced during anaerobic glycolysis in muscle is transported to the liver, converted to glucose, and returned to the muscle.

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Anaerobic Glycolysis

Glucose breakdown to lactate in the absence of sufficient oxygen. This occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise when oxygen supply is limited.

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Lactate to Glucose Conversion

In the liver, lactate from the muscle is converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis. This replenishes the muscle's glucose stores.

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Hepatic Gluconeogenesis

The process of glucose synthesis from non-carbohydrate precursors occurring in the liver.

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Importance of Cori Cycle

This cycle is essential for maintaining blood glucose levels during strenuous activity and for providing energy sources for muscle cells. It accounts for significant glucose turnover in the body.

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Fatty Acid Catabolism

The breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, which can then enter the citric acid cycle for energy production.

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Study Notes

Nucleic Acids

  • Nucleic acids are unbranched polymers of nucleotides.
  • Two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
  • DNA stores genetic information and transmits it to future generations.
  • RNA translates genetic information into proteins.
  • Nucleotides consist of a monosaccharide, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
  • DNA molecules contain millions of nucleotides, while RNA molecules have thousands.
  • Human DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
  • A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule that codes for a single protein.

Nucleosides

  • Nucleosides are formed by joining a monosaccharide (ribose or deoxyribose) and a base.
  • For purine bases, the suffix "-osine" is used (e.g., adenosine).
  • For pyrimidine bases, the suffix "-idine" is used (e.g., cytidine).
  • Deoxyribonucleosides use the prefix "deoxy-".

Nucleotides

  • Nucleotides are formed by adding a phosphate group to the 5' -OH of a nucleoside.
  • Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
  • Examples: dAMP, ADP, and ATP.

Nucleic Acids (Continued)

  • Nucleic acids consist of repeating nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds.
  • The DNA double helix is a right-handed double helix composed of two strands running in opposite directions (5' → 3' and 3' → 5').
  • Sugar-phosphate groups are on the outside of the helix and bases are on the inside.
  • The bases form complementary base pairs: A with T (2 hydrogen bonds), and G with C (3 hydrogen bonds).

DNA Replication

  • Replication is the process of copying DNA.
  • Replication forks form as the two strands split apart.
  • Synthesis of the leading strand happens continuously, while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments.

DNA Replication (Continued)

  • DNA polymerase ensures accurate copying and formation of the new strands.
  • Nucleotide triphosphates (e.g., dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP) provide the building blocks.
  • The process proceeds from 3' to 5' on the template strand (forming new strands in the 5' to 3' direction).

RNA

  • RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
  • RNA contains the bases A, G, C, and U (instead of T in DNA).
  • Types of RNA include mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
  • mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes.
  • tRNA brings specific amino acids to the ribosomes.
  • rRNA is the site of protein synthesis in ribosomes.

Transcription

  • Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA from DNA.
  • mRNA is a template for protein synthesis.
  • The sequence of bases in mRNA dictates the amino acid sequence in the protein.

Translation

  • Translation is the synthesis of proteins from mRNA.
  • The codons in mRNA determine the order of amino acids in the protein.
  • tRNA molecules bring the appropriate amino acids to the ribosomes based on the mRNA codons.

Mutations

  • A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence.
  • Point mutations involve substitution of one base for another.
  • Deletion mutations involve the loss of one or more bases.
  • Insertion mutations involve the addition of one or more bases.

Recombinant DNA

  • Recombinant DNA is created by combining segments of DNA from different sources.
  • Restriction enzymes cut DNA.
  • DNA ligase joins DNA fragments.
  • This allows the creation of new DNA constructs for various purposes.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

  • PCR is used to amplify specific DNA segments.
  • Primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleotides are necessary components.
  • Repeated cycles of heating and cooling amplify the target sequence.

Metabolism

  • Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in an organism.
  • Catabolism breaks down molecules for energy release.
  • Anabolism builds molecules using energy.
  • Metabolic pathways are series of reactions, either linear or cyclic.

Digestion

  • Digestion breaks down food into smaller molecules.
  • Carbohydrates hydrolyzed to monosaccharides.
  • Protein digested to amino acids.
  • Fats hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glycerol.

ATP

  • ATP is a major energy currency in the cell.
  • It is generated from ADP by phosphorylation.
  • ATP hydrolysis releases energy used to fuel various cellular processes.

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

  • The citric acid cycle is a central pathway in cellular respiration.
  • Acetyl CoA enters and then cycles through generating molecules required for energy.
  • Reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2 ) are produced to carry electrons.
  • These reduced molecules then feed into the Electron Transport Chain.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

  • ETC generates energy to create ATP.
  • Electrons are transferred from reduced coenzymes.
  • H⁺ ions are translocated across the membrane creating an electrochemical gradient used by ATP synthase.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

  • Oxidative phosphorylation generates ATP from NADH and FADH2.
  • The electron transport chain is involved this process.

Other Metabolic Processes

  • Glycolysis: glucose breakdown for energy (in cytoplasm).
  • Gluconeogenesis: glucose synthesis from non-carbohydrate sources.
  • Lipid metabolism: fats are broken down for energy.
  • Protein metabolism (different processes exist).

Vitamins and Minerals

  • Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients required in small amounts.
  • Vitamins are organic compounds.
  • Minerals are inorganic elements.

Inborn Errors of Metabolism

  • Genetic disorders that disrupt specific metabolic pathways.
  • Symptoms of these disorders can vary significantly based on the disrupted process.

Macronutrients

  • Macronutrients provide energy and are vital for daily functions (Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats).
  • Dietary fiber is important part of the human diet to aid in digestion.

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Test your knowledge on key concepts in molecular genetics with this quiz. Focus areas include PCR, recombinant DNA, DNA replication, and mutations. Perfect for students studying genetics or preparing for exams in biology!

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