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Questions and Answers
What is the main purpose of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
What is the main purpose of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four essential elements for PCR?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four essential elements for PCR?
What is recombinant DNA primarily composed of?
What is recombinant DNA primarily composed of?
Which enzyme is required to create recombinant DNA?
Which enzyme is required to create recombinant DNA?
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Which process involves the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones?
Which process involves the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones?
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In metabolism, what is characterized by energy absorption?
In metabolism, what is characterized by energy absorption?
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What does an anabolic process generally do?
What does an anabolic process generally do?
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Which of the following is a function of nucleoside triphosphates in PCR?
Which of the following is a function of nucleoside triphosphates in PCR?
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Which base pair forms between adenine and thymine in DNA?
Which base pair forms between adenine and thymine in DNA?
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What occurs during a deletion mutation?
What occurs during a deletion mutation?
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What is the main purpose of DNA replication?
What is the main purpose of DNA replication?
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What is the result of a silent mutation?
What is the result of a silent mutation?
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During transcription, what is synthesized from the DNA template?
During transcription, what is synthesized from the DNA template?
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Which of the following distinguishes RNA from DNA?
Which of the following distinguishes RNA from DNA?
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What is the effect of a mutation that causes the production of a stop codon?
What is the effect of a mutation that causes the production of a stop codon?
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Which bond joins the nucleotides in the new DNA strand during replication?
Which bond joins the nucleotides in the new DNA strand during replication?
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What is the process that combines DNA segments using the DNA ligase enzyme?
What is the process that combines DNA segments using the DNA ligase enzyme?
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Which of the following statements about the leading and lagging strands is correct?
Which of the following statements about the leading and lagging strands is correct?
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What can result from a mutation that produces one different amino acid in a protein?
What can result from a mutation that produces one different amino acid in a protein?
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What type of bond forms between cytosine and guanine in DNA?
What type of bond forms between cytosine and guanine in DNA?
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What causes cystic fibrosis?
What causes cystic fibrosis?
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What is a key function of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?
What is a key function of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?
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What is the role of EcoRI in genetic engineering?
What is the role of EcoRI in genetic engineering?
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What common result follows a mutation associated with sickle cell anemia?
What common result follows a mutation associated with sickle cell anemia?
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What is one of the main functions of Vitamin K?
What is one of the main functions of Vitamin K?
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Which type of vitamins are absorbed with dietary fat?
Which type of vitamins are absorbed with dietary fat?
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What condition can Vitamin K help to prevent?
What condition can Vitamin K help to prevent?
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Which vitamin is involved in releasing energy from foods and is also important for healthy skin?
Which vitamin is involved in releasing energy from foods and is also important for healthy skin?
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Which vitamin can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan?
Which vitamin can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan?
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What is the fate of excess water-soluble vitamins in the body?
What is the fate of excess water-soluble vitamins in the body?
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Which vitamin is specifically involved in metabolism and enzyme activity?
Which vitamin is specifically involved in metabolism and enzyme activity?
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Which of the following statements is true about fat-soluble vitamins?
Which of the following statements is true about fat-soluble vitamins?
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What is the main metabolic function of the Cori Cycle?
What is the main metabolic function of the Cori Cycle?
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Which of the following statements about gluconeogenesis is correct?
Which of the following statements about gluconeogenesis is correct?
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During the Cori Cycle, what happens to lactate in the liver?
During the Cori Cycle, what happens to lactate in the liver?
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What percentage of plasma glucose turnover may be accounted for by the Cori Cycle?
What percentage of plasma glucose turnover may be accounted for by the Cori Cycle?
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In skeletal muscle under low oxygen conditions, what is glucose converted to?
In skeletal muscle under low oxygen conditions, what is glucose converted to?
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How many ATP are utilized in converting a fatty acid into fatty acyl CoA?
How many ATP are utilized in converting a fatty acid into fatty acyl CoA?
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What is primarily transported to the liver from skeletal muscle during the Cori Cycle?
What is primarily transported to the liver from skeletal muscle during the Cori Cycle?
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What is the starting substrate for gluconeogenesis in the liver?
What is the starting substrate for gluconeogenesis in the liver?
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What is the primary role of pyridoxine (B6) in the body?
What is the primary role of pyridoxine (B6) in the body?
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Which vitamin is also known as Vitamin H?
Which vitamin is also known as Vitamin H?
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What role does sodium play in bodily functions?
What role does sodium play in bodily functions?
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What is a critical function of cobalamin (B12)?
What is a critical function of cobalamin (B12)?
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What is the significance of folate (B9) in pregnancy?
What is the significance of folate (B9) in pregnancy?
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Which mineral is necessary for iron absorption?
Which mineral is necessary for iron absorption?
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What does biotin (B7) primarily aid in?
What does biotin (B7) primarily aid in?
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What is the role of sulfur in the body?
What is the role of sulfur in the body?
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Study Notes
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are unbranched polymers of nucleotides.
- Two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
- DNA stores genetic information and transmits it to future generations.
- RNA translates genetic information into proteins.
- Nucleotides consist of a monosaccharide, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
- DNA molecules contain millions of nucleotides, while RNA molecules have thousands.
- Human DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
- A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule that codes for a single protein.
Nucleosides
- Nucleosides are formed by joining a monosaccharide (ribose or deoxyribose) and a base.
- For purine bases, the suffix "-osine" is used (e.g., adenosine).
- For pyrimidine bases, the suffix "-idine" is used (e.g., cytidine).
- Deoxyribonucleosides use the prefix "deoxy-".
Nucleotides
- Nucleotides are formed by adding a phosphate group to the 5' -OH of a nucleoside.
- Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
- Examples: dAMP, ADP, and ATP.
Nucleic Acids (Continued)
- Nucleic acids consist of repeating nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds.
- The DNA double helix is a right-handed double helix composed of two strands running in opposite directions (5' → 3' and 3' → 5').
- Sugar-phosphate groups are on the outside of the helix and bases are on the inside.
- The bases form complementary base pairs: A with T (2 hydrogen bonds), and G with C (3 hydrogen bonds).
DNA Replication
- Replication is the process of copying DNA.
- Replication forks form as the two strands split apart.
- Synthesis of the leading strand happens continuously, while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments.
DNA Replication (Continued)
- DNA polymerase ensures accurate copying and formation of the new strands.
- Nucleotide triphosphates (e.g., dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP) provide the building blocks.
- The process proceeds from 3' to 5' on the template strand (forming new strands in the 5' to 3' direction).
RNA
- RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
- RNA contains the bases A, G, C, and U (instead of T in DNA).
- Types of RNA include mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
- mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes.
- tRNA brings specific amino acids to the ribosomes.
- rRNA is the site of protein synthesis in ribosomes.
Transcription
- Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA from DNA.
- mRNA is a template for protein synthesis.
- The sequence of bases in mRNA dictates the amino acid sequence in the protein.
Translation
- Translation is the synthesis of proteins from mRNA.
- The codons in mRNA determine the order of amino acids in the protein.
- tRNA molecules bring the appropriate amino acids to the ribosomes based on the mRNA codons.
Mutations
- A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence.
- Point mutations involve substitution of one base for another.
- Deletion mutations involve the loss of one or more bases.
- Insertion mutations involve the addition of one or more bases.
Recombinant DNA
- Recombinant DNA is created by combining segments of DNA from different sources.
- Restriction enzymes cut DNA.
- DNA ligase joins DNA fragments.
- This allows the creation of new DNA constructs for various purposes.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- PCR is used to amplify specific DNA segments.
- Primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleotides are necessary components.
- Repeated cycles of heating and cooling amplify the target sequence.
Metabolism
- Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in an organism.
- Catabolism breaks down molecules for energy release.
- Anabolism builds molecules using energy.
- Metabolic pathways are series of reactions, either linear or cyclic.
Digestion
- Digestion breaks down food into smaller molecules.
- Carbohydrates hydrolyzed to monosaccharides.
- Protein digested to amino acids.
- Fats hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glycerol.
ATP
- ATP is a major energy currency in the cell.
- It is generated from ADP by phosphorylation.
- ATP hydrolysis releases energy used to fuel various cellular processes.
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
- The citric acid cycle is a central pathway in cellular respiration.
- Acetyl CoA enters and then cycles through generating molecules required for energy.
- Reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2 ) are produced to carry electrons.
- These reduced molecules then feed into the Electron Transport Chain.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
- ETC generates energy to create ATP.
- Electrons are transferred from reduced coenzymes.
- H⁺ ions are translocated across the membrane creating an electrochemical gradient used by ATP synthase.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Oxidative phosphorylation generates ATP from NADH and FADH2.
- The electron transport chain is involved this process.
Other Metabolic Processes
- Glycolysis: glucose breakdown for energy (in cytoplasm).
- Gluconeogenesis: glucose synthesis from non-carbohydrate sources.
- Lipid metabolism: fats are broken down for energy.
- Protein metabolism (different processes exist).
Vitamins and Minerals
- Vitamins and minerals are essential nutrients required in small amounts.
- Vitamins are organic compounds.
- Minerals are inorganic elements.
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
- Genetic disorders that disrupt specific metabolic pathways.
- Symptoms of these disorders can vary significantly based on the disrupted process.
Macronutrients
- Macronutrients provide energy and are vital for daily functions (Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats).
- Dietary fiber is important part of the human diet to aid in digestion.
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Description
Test your knowledge on key concepts in molecular genetics with this quiz. Focus areas include PCR, recombinant DNA, DNA replication, and mutations. Perfect for students studying genetics or preparing for exams in biology!
