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3.2 Biol2220: Cardiovascular System - Blood Anatomy & Physiology
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3.2 Biol2220: Cardiovascular System - Blood Anatomy & Physiology

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?

  • To produce hormones
  • To remove excess water from the body
  • To regulate body temperature
  • To distribute oxygen and nutrients to all cells in the body (correct)
  • What is the approximate percentage of water in plasma?

  • 95%
  • 80%
  • 92% (correct)
  • 98%
  • What is the main function of hemoglobin in red blood cells?

  • To engulf and destroy pathogens
  • To reversibly bind oxygen and carbon dioxide (correct)
  • To produce antibodies and provide immunity
  • To fight parasitic infections
  • What is the approximate percentage of red blood cells in the total blood cells?

    <p>99.9%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the liver in relation to the Heme portion of Hemoglobin?

    <p>To degrade Heme into Bile Pigments and secrete it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate number of RBCs that die and are scavenged by the liver each second?

    <p>3 million</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of polypeptide chains that make up the Hemoglobin molecule?

    <p>Alpha and Beta chains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Carbon Dioxide generated in the tissues leave the red blood cells?

    <p>Through diffusion through transmembrane channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the number of molecules of Oxygen that can bind to each Heme?

    <p>One</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Neutrophils?

    <p>To engulf and kill foreign invaders such as bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of leukocytes is cytotoxic and releases the contents of their granules on invaders?

    <p>Eosinophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a decrease in Neutrophil count due to heavy doses of radiation chemotherapy or stress?

    <p>An opportunistic infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Basophils release during inflammation, leading to an increase in blood flow to the area?

    <p>Mediators such as histamine and serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal range of Eosinophil count in the blood?

    <p>0-450/µl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal range of platelets in blood?

    <p>150,000–350,000 per microliter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of platelets in the body?

    <p>To aid in the clotting of blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the solidification of blood to prevent excessive bleeding?

    <p>Coagulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the coagulation of blood?

    <p>Damage to the blood vessel endothelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary component of a blood clot?

    <p>Fibrin molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Vitamin K in the production of blood clotting factors?

    <p>Essential for the hepatic production of FII, FVII, FIX, and FX</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the aPTT test?

    <p>Detecting defects in the tissue factor and common pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal range of platelet count in a healthy individual?

    <p>150K - 450K / µl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common pathway affected by the INR test?

    <p>Tissue factor and common pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a substance that confers identity and is recognized by the immune system?

    <p>Antigen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor that determines immunogenicity?

    <p>Foreignness of the molecule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the specific part of an antigen recognized by an antibody or receptor?

    <p>Epitope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for protein molecules produced by activated B cells?

    <p>Antibodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most abundant type of antibody in blood and body fluids?

    <p>IgG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of antibodies in the immune system?

    <p>To recognize and respond to antigens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a molecule that is too small to be an antigen without combining with another molecule?

    <p>Hapten</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of an antibody molecule?

    <p>Y-shaped</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of antibody that is first produced in an immune response?

    <p>IgM</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a molecule to induce an immune response?

    <p>Immunogenicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Cardiovascular System: Overview & Functions

    • The cardiovascular system distributes nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to all cells in the body
    • It carries away metabolic waste products, including CO2
    • The system consists of blood, heart, capillaries, arteries, and veins

    Blood: Composition & Functions

    • Blood is composed of 5-6 liters in males and 4-5 liters in females
    • Blood has two fractions: plasma (55% of total blood volume) and formed elements
    • Plasma contains 92% water, electrolytes, proteins, and nutrients
    • Formed elements include blood cells (99.9%), platelets, and white blood cells (0.1%)
    • Red blood cells (RBCs) have no nucleus, are bi-concaval, and contain 95% hemoglobin (Hb)
    • Hb can reversibly bind 4O2 and 4CO2, and each RBC contains 280 million molecules of Hb
    • White blood cells include five types and are involved in fighting pathogens, inducing inflammation, and producing antibodies
    • Platelets are involved in blood clotting, engulf and destroy pathogens, and induce inflammation

    Hematocrit

    • Hematocrit is the proportion of RBCs in blood
    • Normal hematocrits are different for males and females

    Hemoglobin & The Bohr Effect

    • Hemoglobin (Hb) molecule consists of four polypeptide chains: two alpha chains and two beta chains
    • Each polypeptide chain is attached to a prosthetic group called heme, which has one atom of iron at its center
    • One molecule of oxygen can bind to each heme
    • The Bohr effect describes how changes in pH, temperature, and CO2 affect oxygen transport

    White Blood Cells (WBCs)

    • WBCs include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and others
    • Neutrophils are the most abundant WBCs and are involved in phagocytosis
    • Eosinophils increase in number in response to parasitic infections and release granules that are cytotoxic to invaders
    • Basophils increase in number during infection and release histamine, serotonin, and other mediators that contribute to inflammation

    Platelets

    • Platelets are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes
    • Platelets are involved in blood clotting and are maintained at a homeostatic level of 150,000-350,000 per microliter
    • Platelet count can be affected by various factors, including biologic triggers, drugs, and autoimmunity

    Blood Clotting (Hemostasis)

    • Blood clotting is a complex process that involves coagulation and the formation of a blood clot
    • Coagulation is initiated by collagen, which activates platelets and forms a platelet plug
    • Primary hemostasis involves the formation of a platelet plug, which is then stabilized by fibrin molecules
    • Coagulation factors include vitamin K, calcium, and phospholipids

    Control & Diagnostic Testing

    • Coagulation testing includes activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), international normalized ratio (INR), and D-dimer tests
    • Bleeding time test measures platelet function, and platelet count measures platelet number
    • von Willebrand's disease, liver disease, and vitamin K deficiency can affect coagulation tests
    • D-dimer test detects overactivation of the fibrinolytic system and is used to diagnose disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

    Immunity and Body Defenses

    • Types of immune cells:
      • Neutrophils: 50-70% of total immune cells, numerous short-lived phagocytes
      • Eosinophils: 1-5%, stain red, attack parasites
      • Basophils: 0.1%, stain blue, release histamine
      • Natural Killer (NK) cells: cytotoxic or killer cells
      • Mast cells: associated with allergies and anaphylaxis
      • T-lymphocytes (T cells): play a central role in cell-mediated immunity
      • B-lymphocytes (B cells): produce antibodies

    Innate Immunity - Phagocytosis

    • Associated with Neutrophils, Monocytes, and Macrophages
    • Phagocytosis: process by which cells engulf and digest foreign particles and microorganisms
    • Enzymes in lysosome digest bacterium, triggering an inflammatory response

    Innate Immunity - Cell-Mediated Immunity

    • Cytotoxic or killer cells (CD8 T cells): recognize and kill infected cells
    • CD8 T cells recognize antigens on the surface of infected cells, attach to these cells, and secrete perforins
    • Perforins punch holes into the infected cells, killing them

    Innate Immunity - TLRs (Toll-Like Receptors)

    • TLRs are innate immune sensors that trigger a cascade of events to kill or protect against pathogens
    • They are transmembrane proteins present on macrophages and a few other cells
    • They are conserved across vertebrates and are a very important part of the innate immune system
    • They recognize and bind to microbial components, such as bacterial lipopeptides, lipoteichoic acid, LPS, flagellin, and bacterial and viral DNA and RNA

    Innate Immunity - Cytokines

    • Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells of the immune system
    • Examples: Interferons, Interleukins, and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)
    • They affect the behavior of other cells and are key players in both innate and acquired immunity
    • Cytokines are released by many cells of the immune system, including Neutrophils, Macrophages, Cytotoxic/Killer cells, and Lymphocytes

    Innate Immunity - Interferons (IFN)

    • Signaling proteins produced by virus-infected monocytes and lymphocytes
    • They inhibit protein synthesis and "interfere" with virus replication
    • Warn neighboring cells that a virus is present, and if we didn't have IFNs, most of us would probably die of influenza virus infection

    Innate Immunity - Interleukins

    • Interleukins are numbered (1-37) and are not stored inside cells
    • They are quickly synthesized and secreted in response to infection
    • They are key modulators of the behavior of immune cells
    • Mostly secreted by T-lymphocytes and Macrophages

    Innate Immunity - Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)

    • Main role is in the regulation of immune cells
    • It is an endogenous pyrogen (able to induce fever) and can induce apoptotic cell death, cachexia, inflammation, and inhibit tumorigenesis and viral replication

    Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity

    • Immunity: not being susceptible to disease
    • Types of immunity: Innate and Adaptive
    • Adaptive immunity: after exposure, the body remembers specific invader and relies on the production of antibodies
    • 2 x 2 Matrix: Immunity is either active or passive, and either natural or artificial

    Antigens

    • Antigens are also known as Immunogens
    • An antigen is a substance that confers identity
    • The immune system recognizes, responds to, and remembers molecules that are antigens
    • The specific part of an antigen recognized by an antibody or receptor is called an epitope
    • Immunogenicity: the ability to induce a humoral (antibody) and/or cell-mediated immune response

    Antibodies

    • Antibodies are also known as Immunoglobulins
    • Protein molecules produced by activated B cells (Plasma Cells)
    • Y-shaped molecule with hinges
    • Ends include variable regions where antigen binding occurs
    • Antibodies made by a single B cell are all the same, differ from those made by another in the "variable region" of the antibody
    • Antibodies occur in 2 forms: Soluble and Membrane-bound
    • Examples of antibodies: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE

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    Related Documents

    3.2 TOPIC 1.pdf
    3.2 topic 2.pdf

    Description

    Learn about the basic functions and components of the cardiovascular system, including blood, heart, capillaries, and arteries. Understand the roles of distributing nutrients and oxygen and carrying away metabolic waste products.

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