3.2 Biol2220: Cardiovascular System - Blood Anatomy & Physiology

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?

To produce hormones

To remove excess water from the body

To regulate body temperature

To distribute oxygen and nutrients to all cells in the body (correct)

What is the approximate percentage of water in plasma?

95%

80%

92% (correct)

98%

What is the main function of hemoglobin in red blood cells?

To engulf and destroy pathogens

To reversibly bind oxygen and carbon dioxide (correct)

To produce antibodies and provide immunity

To fight parasitic infections

What is the approximate percentage of red blood cells in the total blood cells?

99.9% Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the liver in relation to the Heme portion of Hemoglobin?

To degrade Heme into Bile Pigments and secrete it Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate number of RBCs that die and are scavenged by the liver each second?

3 million Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of polypeptide chains that make up the Hemoglobin molecule?

Alpha and Beta chains Signup and view all the answers

How does Carbon Dioxide generated in the tissues leave the red blood cells?

Through diffusion through transmembrane channels Signup and view all the answers

What is the number of molecules of Oxygen that can bind to each Heme?

One Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of Neutrophils?

To engulf and kill foreign invaders such as bacteria Signup and view all the answers

Which type of leukocytes is cytotoxic and releases the contents of their granules on invaders?

Eosinophils Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a decrease in Neutrophil count due to heavy doses of radiation chemotherapy or stress?

An opportunistic infection Signup and view all the answers

What do Basophils release during inflammation, leading to an increase in blood flow to the area?

Mediators such as histamine and serotonin Signup and view all the answers

What is the normal range of Eosinophil count in the blood?

0-450/µl Signup and view all the answers

What is the normal range of platelets in blood?

150,000–350,000 per microliter Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of platelets in the body?

To aid in the clotting of blood Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the solidification of blood to prevent excessive bleeding?

Coagulation Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the coagulation of blood?

Damage to the blood vessel endothelium Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary component of a blood clot?

Fibrin molecules Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Vitamin K in the production of blood clotting factors?

Essential for the hepatic production of FII, FVII, FIX, and FX Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the aPTT test?

Detecting defects in the tissue factor and common pathway Signup and view all the answers

What is the normal range of platelet count in a healthy individual?

150K - 450K / µl Signup and view all the answers

What is the common pathway affected by the INR test?

Tissue factor and common pathway Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a substance that confers identity and is recognized by the immune system?

Antigen Signup and view all the answers

What is the main factor that determines immunogenicity?

Foreignness of the molecule Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the specific part of an antigen recognized by an antibody or receptor?

Epitope Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for protein molecules produced by activated B cells?

Antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the most abundant type of antibody in blood and body fluids?

IgG Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of antibodies in the immune system?

To recognize and respond to antigens Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a molecule that is too small to be an antigen without combining with another molecule?

Hapten Signup and view all the answers

What is the shape of an antibody molecule?

Y-shaped Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of antibody that is first produced in an immune response?

IgM Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the ability of a molecule to induce an immune response?

Immunogenicity Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

The Cardiovascular System: Overview & Functions

The cardiovascular system distributes nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to all cells in the body
It carries away metabolic waste products, including CO2
The system consists of blood, heart, capillaries, arteries, and veins

Blood: Composition & Functions

Blood is composed of 5-6 liters in males and 4-5 liters in females
Blood has two fractions: plasma (55% of total blood volume) and formed elements
Plasma contains 92% water, electrolytes, proteins, and nutrients
Formed elements include blood cells (99.9%), platelets, and white blood cells (0.1%)
Red blood cells (RBCs) have no nucleus, are bi-concaval, and contain 95% hemoglobin (Hb)
Hb can reversibly bind 4O2 and 4CO2, and each RBC contains 280 million molecules of Hb
White blood cells include five types and are involved in fighting pathogens, inducing inflammation, and producing antibodies
Platelets are involved in blood clotting, engulf and destroy pathogens, and induce inflammation

Hematocrit

Hematocrit is the proportion of RBCs in blood
Normal hematocrits are different for males and females

Hemoglobin & The Bohr Effect

Hemoglobin (Hb) molecule consists of four polypeptide chains: two alpha chains and two beta chains
Each polypeptide chain is attached to a prosthetic group called heme, which has one atom of iron at its center
One molecule of oxygen can bind to each heme
The Bohr effect describes how changes in pH, temperature, and CO2 affect oxygen transport

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

WBCs include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and others
Neutrophils are the most abundant WBCs and are involved in phagocytosis
Eosinophils increase in number in response to parasitic infections and release granules that are cytotoxic to invaders
Basophils increase in number during infection and release histamine, serotonin, and other mediators that contribute to inflammation

Platelets

Platelets are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes
Platelets are involved in blood clotting and are maintained at a homeostatic level of 150,000-350,000 per microliter
Platelet count can be affected by various factors, including biologic triggers, drugs, and autoimmunity

Blood Clotting (Hemostasis)

Blood clotting is a complex process that involves coagulation and the formation of a blood clot
Coagulation is initiated by collagen, which activates platelets and forms a platelet plug
Primary hemostasis involves the formation of a platelet plug, which is then stabilized by fibrin molecules
Coagulation factors include vitamin K, calcium, and phospholipids

Control & Diagnostic Testing

Coagulation testing includes activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), international normalized ratio (INR), and D-dimer tests
Bleeding time test measures platelet function, and platelet count measures platelet number
von Willebrand's disease, liver disease, and vitamin K deficiency can affect coagulation tests
D-dimer test detects overactivation of the fibrinolytic system and is used to diagnose disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

Immunity and Body Defenses

Types of immune cells:
- Neutrophils: 50-70% of total immune cells, numerous short-lived phagocytes
- Eosinophils: 1-5%, stain red, attack parasites
- Basophils: 0.1%, stain blue, release histamine
- Natural Killer (NK) cells: cytotoxic or killer cells
- Mast cells: associated with allergies and anaphylaxis
- T-lymphocytes (T cells): play a central role in cell-mediated immunity
- B-lymphocytes (B cells): produce antibodies

Innate Immunity - Phagocytosis

Associated with Neutrophils, Monocytes, and Macrophages
Phagocytosis: process by which cells engulf and digest foreign particles and microorganisms
Enzymes in lysosome digest bacterium, triggering an inflammatory response

Innate Immunity - Cell-Mediated Immunity

Cytotoxic or killer cells (CD8 T cells): recognize and kill infected cells
CD8 T cells recognize antigens on the surface of infected cells, attach to these cells, and secrete perforins
Perforins punch holes into the infected cells, killing them

Innate Immunity - TLRs (Toll-Like Receptors)

TLRs are innate immune sensors that trigger a cascade of events to kill or protect against pathogens
They are transmembrane proteins present on macrophages and a few other cells
They are conserved across vertebrates and are a very important part of the innate immune system
They recognize and bind to microbial components, such as bacterial lipopeptides, lipoteichoic acid, LPS, flagellin, and bacterial and viral DNA and RNA

Innate Immunity - Cytokines

Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells of the immune system
Examples: Interferons, Interleukins, and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)
They affect the behavior of other cells and are key players in both innate and acquired immunity
Cytokines are released by many cells of the immune system, including Neutrophils, Macrophages, Cytotoxic/Killer cells, and Lymphocytes

Innate Immunity - Interferons (IFN)

Signaling proteins produced by virus-infected monocytes and lymphocytes
They inhibit protein synthesis and "interfere" with virus replication
Warn neighboring cells that a virus is present, and if we didn't have IFNs, most of us would probably die of influenza virus infection

Innate Immunity - Interleukins

Interleukins are numbered (1-37) and are not stored inside cells
They are quickly synthesized and secreted in response to infection
They are key modulators of the behavior of immune cells
Mostly secreted by T-lymphocytes and Macrophages

Innate Immunity - Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)

Main role is in the regulation of immune cells
It is an endogenous pyrogen (able to induce fever) and can induce apoptotic cell death, cachexia, inflammation, and inhibit tumorigenesis and viral replication

Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity

Immunity: not being susceptible to disease
Types of immunity: Innate and Adaptive
Adaptive immunity: after exposure, the body remembers specific invader and relies on the production of antibodies
2 x 2 Matrix: Immunity is either active or passive, and either natural or artificial

Antigens

Antigens are also known as Immunogens
An antigen is a substance that confers identity
The immune system recognizes, responds to, and remembers molecules that are antigens
The specific part of an antigen recognized by an antibody or receptor is called an epitope
Immunogenicity: the ability to induce a humoral (antibody) and/or cell-mediated immune response

Antibodies

Antibodies are also known as Immunoglobulins
Protein molecules produced by activated B cells (Plasma Cells)
Y-shaped molecule with hinges
Ends include variable regions where antigen binding occurs
Antibodies made by a single B cell are all the same, differ from those made by another in the "variable region" of the antibody
Antibodies occur in 2 forms: Soluble and Membrane-bound
Examples of antibodies: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE

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Description

Learn about the basic functions and components of the cardiovascular system, including blood, heart, capillaries, and arteries. Understand the roles of distributing nutrients and oxygen and carrying away metabolic waste products.