Cardiovascular System: Blood Anatomy and Physiology
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of direct-acting anticoagulants, such as Apixaban and Rivaroxaban?

  • Acceleration of antithrombin III activity
  • Reversible direct inhibition of factor X (correct)
  • Inhibition of Thromboxane synthesis
  • Inhibition of Vitamin K-dependent clotting factors

    • Which of the following is a characteristic of Heparin?

  • Inhibits Vitamin K-dependent clotting factors
  • Administered parenterally due to high charge (correct)
  • Reversible inhibitor of factor X
  • Orally bioavailable

    • What is the mechanism of action of Aspirin as a platelet inhibitor?

  • Vasodilation and increase blood flow
  • Inhibition of Thromboxane synthesis (correct)
  • Inhibition of phosphodiesterase
  • Reversible inhibition of factor X

    • What is the primary mechanism of action of indirect-acting anticoagulants, such as Warfarin sodium?

    <p>Inhibition of Vitamin K-dependent clotting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most toxic side-effect of anticoagulant therapy?

    <p>Hemorrhage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Heparin-antithrombin III complex?

    <p>Permanently inactivates factors IX, X, and XI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of administering 81.25 mg/day of aspirin?

    <p>To reduce the risk of myocardial infarction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the antidote for Heparin overdose?

    <p>Protamine sulfate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of indirect-acting anticoagulants?

    <p>Orally bioavailable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of T cells and B cells that respond to a specific antigen?

    <p>They have a surface receptor with a proper fit to react with that specific antigen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of memory cells in the immune response?

    <p>To allow for a quicker and larger response upon subsequent antigen exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the origin of the term 'vaccine'?

    <p>From the Latin word for cow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using a weakened pathogen in a live attenuated vaccine?

    <p>To reduce the risk of adverse reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of a killed/inactivated vaccine?

    <p>It is destroyed with formalin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using genetic engineering in subunit/conjugate/engineered vaccines?

    <p>To produce a specific antigen through genetic engineering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using memory cells in the immune response?

    <p>They allow for a quicker and larger response upon subsequent antigen exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the immune response upon first exposure to an antigen?

    <p>It is slow and small</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using a portion of a pathogen in a subunit/conjugate/engineered vaccine?

    <p>To provide a specific antigen for immune recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using vaccines in immunization?

    <p>They allow for a quicker and larger response upon subsequent antigen exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of MHC II protein in antigen presentation?

    <p>To display antigens on the surface of antigen-presenting cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of a humoral immune response?

    <p>The release of antibodies from plasma cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of interleukin-1 (IL-1) in a humoral immune response?

    <p>To activate macrophages and stimulate antigen presentation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in a humoral immune response?

    <p>To process and display antigens on their surface, stimulating T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Cardiovascular System Overview

    • The cardiovascular system has two main functions: distributing nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to all cells in the body, and carrying away metabolic waste products.
    • The system consists of five main components: blood, heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries.

    Blood Overview

    • Blood is made up of two fractions: plasma and formed elements.
    • Plasma makes up 55% of total blood volume and is composed of 92% water, electrolytes, proteins, and nutrients.
    • Formed elements include blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells.
    • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) have no nucleus, are bi-concaval, and make up 99.9% of all blood cells.
    • Hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells can reversibly bind to 4O2 and 4CO2.
    • White blood cells make up 0.1% of all blood cells and have five types.

    Hematocrit and Blood Components

    • Hematocrit is the proportion of red blood cells in the blood.
    • Normal hematocrit values for males and females are shown.

    Bohr and Haldane Effects

    • The Bohr effect is the increase in oxygen binding to hemoglobin in response to a decrease in pH.
    • The Haldane effect is the increase in carbon dioxide binding to hemoglobin in response to an increase in pH.

    CO2 Transport and Buffering

    • CO2 is an acid that reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
    • Hemoglobin plays a crucial role in CO2 transport and buffering by binding to CO2 in the blood.
    • The CO2 is temporarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, transported to the lungs, and then released.

    Blood Clotting and Hemostasis

    • Hemostasis is the process of forming a blood clot to prevent bleeding.
    • A blood clot consists of a plug of platelets enmeshed in a network of insoluble fibrin molecules.
    • The clotting cascade requires the proteolytic enzyme thrombin (Factor II) and calcium ions (Ca2+).
    • The clotting cascade also requires about a dozen other protein clotting factors, which are activated by proteolytic cleavage.

    Fibrinolysis

    • Fibrinolysis is the process of breaking down a blood clot.
    • Plasmin is the enzyme that breaks down fibrin and degrades factors V and VIII, inhibiting further clotting.
    • Plasminogen activators, such as tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) and urokinase, convert plasminogen to plasmin.

    Anticoagulants and Thrombocytopathics

    • Direct-acting anticoagulants, such as apixaban and rivaroxaban, are highly selective and reversible direct inhibitors of factor X.
    • Heparin is an anticoagulant that accelerates antithrombin III activity, which in turn inactivates factors IX, X, and XI.
    • Indirect-acting anticoagulants, such as warfarin, inhibit vitamin K, which is necessary for the production of clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X.
    • Platelet inhibitors, such as aspirin, inhibit thromboxane synthesis, resulting in decreased platelet aggregation.

    Immunity and Body Defenses

    • Immunity is the body's ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign materials or abnormal cells.

    Anatomy and Physiology of Immunity

    • The immune system is a functional system, not an organ system.
    • It consists of multiple activities, including defense against invading pathogens, removal of worn-out cells and tissue debris, identification and destruction of abnormal or mutant cells, rejection of foreign cells, and inappropriate responses.

    Types of Immunity

    • Innate immunity is the first line of defense, providing rapid, non-specific responses to a broad range of microbes.
    • Adaptive or acquired immunity is the second line of defense, providing slower, specific responses to specific microbes.

    Innate Immunity

    • External defenses include anatomical barriers (skin, mucous membranes, secretions), mechanical factors (flushing action of saliva, tears, urine), and chemical factors (antimicrobial peptides in sweat, lysozyme in tears/saliva).
    • Internal defenses include cellular components (neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, cytotoxic or killer cells) and extracellular components (cytokines, complement).

    Cellular Components of Innate Immunity

    • White blood cells (WBCs) fight infection, including lymphocytes (T and B cells), monocytes (which become macrophages), and granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils).
    • Natural killer (NK) cells are activated by the release of IL-2 from T helper cells and recognize antigens on the surface of infected cells.
    • Phagocytosis is the process by which cells engulf and digest foreign particles or microbes.

    Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)

    • TLRs are innate immune sensors that trigger a cascade of events to kill or protect against pathogens.
    • They are present on macrophages and few other cells, recognize microbial components, and bind to microbes or their components.

    Cytokines

    • Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells of the immune system, including interferons, interleukins, and tumour necrosis factor (TNF).
    • They affect the behavior of other cells, are signaling molecules, and are key players in both innate and acquired immunity.

    Interferon (IFN)

    • Interferon is a signaling protein produced by virus-infected monocytes and lymphocytes.
    • It inhibits protein synthesis, "interferes" with virus replication, and warns neighboring cells that a virus is present.

    Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity

    • Adaptive immunity is the body's response to a specific invader after exposure, relying on the production of antibodies.
    • It involves specificity and memory, with T cells and B cells reacting to specific antigens and producing memory cells for future responses.

    Vaccines

    • Vaccines are used to stimulate adaptive immunity, with different types including live attenuated, killed/inactivated, and subunit/conjugate/engineered vaccines.

    Immunity and Body Defenses

    • Immunity is the body's ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign materials or abnormal cells.
    • It consists of defense against invading pathogens, removal of 'worn-out' cells and tissue debris, identification and destruction of abnormal or mutant cells, and rejection of 'foreign' cells.

    Innate Immunity vs Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity

    • Innate immunity is the first line of defense, providing immediate, non-specific defense against infection.
    • Adaptive immunity is the second line of defense, providing specific defense against infection, with a lag period and development of memory.

    External Defenses

    • Anatomical barriers: skin, mucous membranes, and physiological barriers such as temperature, pH, and oxygen levels.
    • Mechanical factors: flushing action of saliva, tears, and urine, and the mucociliary escalator.
    • Chemical factors: antimicrobial peptides in sweat, HCl in the stomach, and lysozyme in tears and saliva.

    Internal Defenses

    • Cellular defenses: neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, cytotoxic or killer cells, and natural killer cells.
    • Extracellular defenses: cytokines, complement, and coagulation.

    Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)

    • TLRs are innate immune sensors that exist as transmembrane proteins on macrophages and other cells.
    • They are conserved across vertebrates and are sensitized to microbes or their components.
    • They trigger a cascade of events to kill or protect against pathogens.

    Cytokines

    • Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells of the immune system that affect the behavior of other cells.
    • Examples include interferons, interleukins, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF).
    • Cytokines are key players in both innate and acquired immunity.

    Interferon (IFN)

    • IFN is an anti-viral protein produced by virus-infected monocytes and lymphocytes.
    • It inhibits protein synthesis and "interferes" with virus replication.
    • IFN warns neighboring cells that a virus is present, inducing an anti-viral state.

    Interleukins

    • Interleukins are numbered, 1-37, and are secreted by T-lymphocytes and macrophages.
    • They are key modulators of behavior of immune cells, promoting proliferation, activation, and antibody production.
    • They are also involved in inflammation.

    Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)

    • TNF is an endogenous pyrogen that regulates immune cells, induces apoptotic cell death, and inhibits tumorigenesis and viral replication.
    • It has multiple functions, including inducing fever, inflammation, and antibody production.

    Antigens

    • Antigens are substances that confer identity, recognized by the immune system.
    • They are also known as immunogens.
    • Immunogenicity is the ability to induce a humoral and/or cell-mediated immune response.
    • Factors that determine immunogenicity include foreignness, size, chemical composition, structure, and physical form.

    Antibodies

    • Antibodies are protein molecules produced by activated B cells (plasma cells).
    • They are Y-shaped molecules with hinges, and their ends include variable regions where antigen binding occurs.
    • Antibodies occur in two forms: soluble and membrane-bound.
    • There are five classes of antibodies: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD.

    Humoral Immune Response

    • A humoral immune response is an elaborate interplay between antigen, non-specific defenses, and B and T lymphocytes.
    • The process involves direct contact and cytokines that bind to receptors on cell surfaces.
    • Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) display antigen on the surface, attached to MHC, for other cells to interact with.

    Humoral Activation

    • Macrophages encounter and process antigen, displaying it on the surface with MHC II protein.
    • T helper cells bind to the antigen-presenting cell, secreting IL-1, which activates the T helper cell.
    • The T helper cell binds to the B cell and releases IL-4, which activates the B cell.
    • The B cell becomes a plasma cell, releasing antibodies.

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    Related Documents

    The Cardiovascular System - Blood Anatomy & Physiology PDF
    The Cardiovascular System Part IV: Body Defenses and Immune Responses PDF

    Description

    This quiz covers the basic functions and components of the cardiovascular system, including blood, heart, capillaries, and arteries.

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