Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the origin of the term 'Indian' as it relates to Indigenous peoples?
What is the origin of the term 'Indian' as it relates to Indigenous peoples?
Which term is specifically defined in Canada's Constitution and the Indian Act?
Which term is specifically defined in Canada's Constitution and the Indian Act?
Which term used to describe Indigenous peoples is rarely used currently due to confusion with early settlers?
Which term used to describe Indigenous peoples is rarely used currently due to confusion with early settlers?
Which term means 'from the beginning' in reference to Indigenous peoples?
Which term means 'from the beginning' in reference to Indigenous peoples?
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What does the term 'Autochthone' primarily signify?
What does the term 'Autochthone' primarily signify?
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Which of the following groups is NOT considered one of the 'First Nations' in Canada?
Which of the following groups is NOT considered one of the 'First Nations' in Canada?
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What is the definition of colonialism?
What is the definition of colonialism?
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Which of the following statements about the term 'Indigenous' is accurate?
Which of the following statements about the term 'Indigenous' is accurate?
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What is a defining characteristic of colonialism?
What is a defining characteristic of colonialism?
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What distinguishes imperialism from colonialism?
What distinguishes imperialism from colonialism?
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Which type of colonialism involves the direct movement of people and land appropriation?
Which type of colonialism involves the direct movement of people and land appropriation?
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What often results from exploitative colonialism?
What often results from exploitative colonialism?
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Which term describes the continued control of resources and labor by multinational corporations after the end of colonial empires?
Which term describes the continued control of resources and labor by multinational corporations after the end of colonial empires?
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What is a common consequence of internal colonialism in a post-colonial state?
What is a common consequence of internal colonialism in a post-colonial state?
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Which of the following is NOT a stage of colonialism?
Which of the following is NOT a stage of colonialism?
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What is a fundamental aspect of the relationship between colonialism and capitalism?
What is a fundamental aspect of the relationship between colonialism and capitalism?
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Which language family is considered the most extensive and has the largest number of speakers among indigenous languages in Canada?
Which language family is considered the most extensive and has the largest number of speakers among indigenous languages in Canada?
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What theory connects indigenous peoples with the history of humankind around the world?
What theory connects indigenous peoples with the history of humankind around the world?
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Which of the following languages is NOT part of the Algonquian family?
Which of the following languages is NOT part of the Algonquian family?
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What is the primary situation affecting the viability of indigenous languages since the introduction of residential schools?
What is the primary situation affecting the viability of indigenous languages since the introduction of residential schools?
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Which among the following is a rare language isolate not related to any other language in North America?
Which among the following is a rare language isolate not related to any other language in North America?
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How many different indigenous languages approximately exist in Canada?
How many different indigenous languages approximately exist in Canada?
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What does the term 'culture areas' refer to in the context of indigenous categorization?
What does the term 'culture areas' refer to in the context of indigenous categorization?
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Which language family includes the languages spoken by the Dene people?
Which language family includes the languages spoken by the Dene people?
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Who are the Haudenosaunee?
Who are the Haudenosaunee?
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Which indigenous language is spoken from Alaska across to Greenland?
Which indigenous language is spoken from Alaska across to Greenland?
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What percentage of the Algonquian language speakers remain as of the latest statistics?
What percentage of the Algonquian language speakers remain as of the latest statistics?
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Which of the following indigenous languages has the least number of speakers?
Which of the following indigenous languages has the least number of speakers?
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What does the complex relationship among Athabascan languages indicate?
What does the complex relationship among Athabascan languages indicate?
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What historical period do we know very little about regarding the Iroquoian language?
What historical period do we know very little about regarding the Iroquoian language?
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Study Notes
Indigenous Peoples’ Terminology
- "Indian" is a colonial term used in the past, stemming from a mistake by Christopher Columbus. It is generally considered insulting and should be avoided.
- "Native" was used in the past but is generally avoided now because it can become confused with other recent immigrants to Canada.
- "Indigenous" means “born in” or “produced or belongs naturally to a region.” It is an accurate term but may not accurately reflect indigenous peoples' perspectives.
- "Aboriginal" means “from the beginning.” It is an outdated term because it can be used to refer to the original peoples of Australia.
- "First Nations" refers to Indians, Métis, and Inuit, the first peoples to occupy what is now Canada.
- Métis are people of mixed ancestry who politically cohered as a nation in the Red River.
- Inuit are distinct people who occupy the Arctic coastline of Canada.
- "Autochthone" is a French word meaning "sprung from the land itself.” It most accurately reflects an indigenous point of view but is not widely used in English.
Colonialism
- Colonialism is a policy of a country seeking to extend or retain political control over other territories and peoples.
- It usually aims for economic dominance through control of labor, extraction, and trade.
- Colonialism maintains a sharp distinction between the ruling nation and the subordinate one.
- It is usually a consequence of conquering a remote territory and always entails unequal rights.
- Colonialism is closely related to imperialism but differs because imperialism implies a more centralized governing structure.
- It is also closely related to capitalism. Colonialism is important and necessary for the development of capitalism, but capitalism is the economic system of production with specific structures of ownership and labor exploitation.
- Colonialism involves various ideological structures as well as political and economic ones. These ideologies are ways of looking at the world and thinking about the people and structures within it.
- Colonialism often involves contradictions and inconsistencies.
Types of Colonialism
- There are two types of colonialism:
- Settler colonialism involves the movement of people from the metropole to the colonies, the appropriation of lands, and the settling of people on those lands.
- Exploitative colonialism is directly or indirectly administered for the extraction of resources.
Neo-Colonialism
- After the collapse of colonial empires following World War II, colonialism continued in the form of control of resources and labor by multinational corporations.
- This continues direct or indirect control of dependent nations by other imperial nations.
Internal Colonialism
- This is the subjugation of an Indigenous people within a post-colonial state.
- Subjugation often involves restrictions on the use of land and resources, as well as varying degrees of administrative supervision, social discrimination, cultural suppression, and denial of political and other rights and freedoms.
Stages of Colonialism
- These apply to the colonial conquest of Turtle Island (North America) and were similar in other colonial contexts worldwide.
- Movement of people from the metropole to the colony.
- Decimation of the indigenous population.
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Increasing economic dependency and undermining of the traditional economy.
- This included the introduction of trade (fur trade in Canada).
- Destruction of indigenous political structures and replacement by European ones.
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Appropriation of lands, confinement to reserves, and treaties.
- Europeans took indigenous lands and removed indigenous communities from them.
- Race as an ideology of colonialism.
- Undermining of family structures.
Origins of Indigenous Peoples in Canada
- There are two major explanations for the origins of Indigenous peoples in Canada: - The Bering Strait Land Bridge theory suggests that Indigenous peoples migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait land bridge to North America. - Other Indigenous stories of their own emergence on the land are told in two different modes of explanation: - These stories explore the deep connection to the land they occupy with the animals who are also part of the land. - They connect Indigenous peoples with the deep history of humankind around the world.
Indigenous Languages of Canada
- There are approximately 54 different indigenous languages with 11 different language families.
- The Algonquian family is the most extensive with the largest number of speakers.
- Inuktitut is one single language spoken from Alaska to Greenland, with 27 mutually comprehensible dialects.
- Athabascan languages are spoken by the Dene people. These are tonal languages with complex relationships among the various languages.
- Kutenai language is a rare language isolate unrelated to any other language in North America.
- Iroquoian languages, of which little is known, were spoken in early historical periods, but few speakers remain.
- Haudenosaunee languages are better known and are related to languages in the United States.
- Nakota languages are Siouan languages spoken widely in Canada and the United States.
- Lokata and Dakota languages have become more widespread in Canada since the late 19th century.
- Many indigenous languages are in danger of extinction due to residential schools and other factors.
- Only Inuktitut, Anishinaabemowin, and Cree are currently viable with the languages spoken as a first language in homes.
Current State of Indigenous Languages
- Language families have been negatively impacted by residential schools and other colonial policies resulting in a reduction of current speakers:
- Algonquian: 144,015 speakers left
- Inuit: 35,500 speakers left
- Athapaskan: 20,700 speakers left
- Siouan: 4,425 speakers left
- Salishan: 2,950 speakers left
- Tsimshian: 1,815 speakers left
- Wakashan: 1,075 speakers left
- Iroquoian: 1,040 speakers left
- Michif: 640 speakers left
- Tlingit: 130 speakers left
- Kutenai: 100 speakers left
- Haida: 75 speakers left
Indigenous Cultural Areas
- Indigenous cultural areas are an externally imposed categorization that looks at common geographical and ecological characteristics leading to similar economic activities.
- This classification is not always helpful because it lumps diverse peoples together.
- It is important to remember that Indigenous groups in Canada are incredibly diverse and have responded to colonialism in different ways.
- Because of the long colonial period in Canada - from the 1500s on the east coast to the 20th century in the Arctic - Europeans, colonialism, and capitalism have impacted Indigenous communities in different ways.
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