ATP Depletion and Cell Injury in Pathologic Basis of Disease

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What is the primary consequence of cytoskeletal damage according to the passage?

Unrestricted enzymatic degradation of cell components leading to necrosis

Detachment of the cell membrane from the cytoskeleton, making it susceptible to rupture (correct)

Impairment of the anchoring and stabilizing effect of the cytoskeleton on cell membranes

Activation of proteases that cause further damage to the cytoskeleton

What is the primary role of lysosomal enzymes in cell injury according to the passage?

Activation of proteases that further damage the cytoskeleton

Unrestricted degradation of cellular components leading to necrosis (correct)

Stabilization of the cell membrane by binding to the cytoskeleton

Regulation of the intracellular milieu to prevent activation of lysosomal enzymes

What is required for lysosomal enzymes to become activated according to the passage?

Rupture of the lysosomal membrane

Changes in the intracellular milieu (correct)

Increased cytosolic calcium levels

Damage to elements of the cytoskeleton

How does the passage describe the relationship between the cytoskeleton and the cell membrane?

The cytoskeleton anchors and stabilizes the cell membrane Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT listed as a consequence of lysosomal enzyme activation in the passage?

Activation of proteases that further damage the cytoskeleton Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of a reduction in ATP levels by 5-10%?

Failure of calcium pumps Signup and view all the answers

What is a direct effect of high cytosolic calcium levels?

Activation of caspases Signup and view all the answers

How does anaerobic metabolism affect pH in a cell with reduced ATP levels?

Decreases pH through lactic acid production Signup and view all the answers

What is a key role of calcium in a cell with high cytosolic levels?

Activate destructive enzymes Signup and view all the answers

What is a specific consequence of Na+/K+ pump dysfunction due to ATP depletion?

Cell swelling Signup and view all the answers

Why is calcium considered a 'special' ion in cellular signaling?

As it is a ubiquitous second messenger Signup and view all the answers

Which caspases are activated by the intracellular death domains of death receptors in the extrinsic pathway?

Caspases 8 and 10 Signup and view all the answers

What happens when Fas ligand (FasL) binds to Fas in the extrinsic pathway?

Activation of FADD Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the Fas receptor in the extrinsic pathway?

Initiating cell death Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells express the Fas ligand (FasL) in the extrinsic pathway?

T cells recognizing self antigens Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Caspases 8 and 10 in the extrinsic pathway?

Activating other caspases involved in execution phase Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the causes of hypertrophy discussed in the text?

Hormonal stimulation Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cellular change involves an increase in the size of cells?

Hypertrophy Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of growth factors in cardiac hypertrophy?

Induce different proteins/contractile elements Signup and view all the answers

Which condition can lead to the increase in the number of cells in an organ according to the text?

Hyperplasia Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the organ size with pathologic hypertrophy?

It increases Signup and view all the answers

How do mechanical stresses across the cardiomyocyte contribute to cardiac hypertrophy?

They result in increased contractile proteins Signup and view all the answers

What triggers apoptosis via the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway?

DNA damage Signup and view all the answers

Which event causes the production of caspases leading to apoptosis in the presence of misfolded proteins in the ER?

Increased chaperone protein production Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of necroptosis that distinguishes it from necrosis?

Genetically programmed signal transduction Signup and view all the answers

In which disorder do misfolded proteins and ER stress feature prominently?

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency Signup and view all the answers

What happens as cells accumulate poorly-folded proteins?

Increase in chaperone protein production Signup and view all the answers

Which ligand binding leads to the activation of necroptosis through RIP-kinase and MLKL phosphorylation?

Tumor necrosis factor Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential function of long-term adaptations to cellular stress according to the passage?

Increase in the number of cells in an organ Signup and view all the answers

How does cardiac hypertrophy differ from normal physiological hypertrophy?

It is characterized by constant neuroendocrine stimulation Signup and view all the answers

What effect might increased mechanical stresses across the cardiomyocyte have on the heart?

Contribution to cardiac hypertrophy Signup and view all the answers

What role do growth factors play in the context of hypertrophy discussed in the text?

Stimulation of vascular development Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of pathologic hypertrophy?

Increased functional demand Signup and view all the answers

What can be an outcome of hyperplasia in an organ?

Increased size of cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a male with a mutant allele on his single X chromosome?

Hemizygous individual Signup and view all the answers

In X-linked recessive inheritance, how are affected males usually related to healthy heterozygous female carriers?

Mothers Signup and view all the answers

What is a common clinical feature of Hemophilia A, an X-linked recessive disorder?

Bruising and prolonged bleeding with minimal trauma Signup and view all the answers

In a pedigree drawing for X-linked recessive disorders, what pattern of transmission may be observed?

Knight's move pattern of transmission Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the person being examined in a pedigree drawing?

Proband Signup and view all the answers

What factor increases the risk of autosomal recessive disorders manifesting according to the text?

Consanguinity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of insult to tissues or cells mentioned in the text?

Ionizing radiation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which ischemia leads to cell injury?

Depletion of ATP Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of necrosis, but NOT apoptosis?

Cell swelling Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a consequence of ATP depletion in a cell?

Inhibition of anabolic pathways Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway of apoptosis?

Triggered by the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of hypertrophy, but NOT hyperplasia?

Increase in cell size Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is a necessary condition for lysosomal enzymes to become activated and cause cellular damage?

Increased cytosolic calcium levels leading to protease activation Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, which of the following is a direct consequence of cytoskeletal damage?

Increased susceptibility of the cell membrane to stretching and rupture Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following enzymes is NOT mentioned as being released from lysosomes upon membrane damage?

Lipases Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, what is the primary consequence of the unregulated activation of lysosomal enzymes within a cell?

Degradation of cellular components and necrotic cell death Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information in the passage, which of the following statements about the relationship between the cytoskeleton and cell membrane is correct?

The cytoskeleton provides structural support to the cell membrane, preventing it from rupturing. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the Fas-associated death domain (FADD) in the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis?

To activate caspases 8 and 10, which then activate executioner caspases Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis is correct?

It is triggered by the binding of FasL to the Fas receptor on certain cell types Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells express the Fas ligand (FasL) in the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis?

T cells that recognize self-antigens and some cytotoxic T cells Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about caspases 8 and 10 in the extrinsic pathway is incorrect?

They are part of the TNF family of receptors Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, which of the following statements about the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis is false?

It is a result of mitochondrial dysfunction and cytochrome c release Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of an initiating mutation in the process of carcinogenesis?

It is found in all progeny of the affected cell and begins the process towards malignant transformation. Signup and view all the answers

Which class of mutated genes is characterized by loss-of-function mutations that generally lead to the attributes of malignant cells?

Tumor suppressor genes Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of driver mutations in the process of carcinogenesis?

They increase the malignant potential of the cell through a gain-of-function mutation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key feature of the genetic evolution of established tumors?

Tumors evolve genetically based on the random acquisition of mutations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following categories of mutated genes is characterized by both gain-of-function and loss-of-function mutations in the context of carcinogenesis?

Genes regulating apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of the accelerated rate of mutation acquisition in affected cells during the process of carcinogenesis?

Increased genomic instability Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the microscopic features of apoptosis?

Cell shrinkage occurs, with cytoplasm becoming dense and organelles tightly packed, followed by chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following stimuli can potentially trigger apoptosis as an adaptive response?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of apoptosis in the context of cellular rejection of transplants?

To induce cell death in transplanted cells recognized as foreign. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of apoptosis in the accumulation of misfolded proteins?

Accumulation of misfolded proteins causes ER stress, which can lead to pathological apoptosis. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between apoptosis and necrosis?

Apoptosis and necrosis are two distinct mechanisms of cell death, with necrosis being an uncontrolled process and apoptosis being a regulated process. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of phagocytic cells in apoptosis?

Phagocytic cells, such as macrophages, engulf and degrade apoptotic bodies to prevent an inflammatory response. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sequences correctly describes the two major stages of apoptosis?

Initiation - activation of 'initiator' caspases, Execution - activation of 'executioner' caspases Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements correctly describes the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway of apoptosis?

It involves the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, leading to the activation of caspase-9. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements correctly describes the extrinsic (death-receptor) pathway of apoptosis?

It is initiated by the binding of death ligands, such as FasL, to death receptors on the cell surface, leading to the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements correctly describes the role of caspases in apoptosis?

'Initiator' caspases activate 'executioner' caspases, which then cause the cellular changes of apoptosis. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements correctly describes the relationship between the intrinsic (mitochondrial) and extrinsic (death-receptor) pathways of apoptosis?

The two pathways can interact with each other through the activation of specific caspases. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of autosomal recessive disorders according to the passage?

The expression of the defect tends to be more uniform than in autosomal dominant disorders Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of enzyme defects mentioned in the passage?

Increased production of the defective enzyme Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is a common characteristic of individuals with a new mutation associated with an autosomal recessive disorder?

They are asymptomatic heterozygotes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why individuals with a heterozygous enzyme defect often function normally, according to the passage?

The natural 'margin of safety' ensures that cells with half the usual complement of the enzyme function normally Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided, which of the following statements about autosomal recessive disorders is correct?

Onset is frequently early in life Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is a potential consequence of the accumulation of a substrate due to an enzyme defect?

The substrate can be toxic in high concentrations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of cytosolic calcium in necrosis?

Cytosolic calcium accumulation can activate the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP), leading to mitochondrial damage and necrosis. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a direct consequence of the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP)?

Leakage of $H^+$ and calcium from the mitochondria into the cytosol Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding membrane damage in necrosis is correct?

Cytoskeletal damage increases physical stresses on the membrane, contributing to membrane damage. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not listed as a potential consequence of lipid breakdown in necrosis?

Activation of caspases and apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided, which of the following statements regarding the relationship between calcium regulation and ATP levels is correct?

ATP deficiency disrupts appropriate calcium sequestration, leading to cytosolic calcium accumulation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following enzymes is not mentioned in the passage as being relevant to necrosis?

Caspases Signup and view all the answers