Psychology Chapter on Learning and Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

What was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in Watson's Little Albert experiment?

Albert's interest

The loud noise (correct)

The white rat

Fear of dogs

How did the white rat become a conditioned stimulus (CS) in the experiment?

Albert learned to like the rat.

It was paired with a loud noise. (correct)

Albert saw it repeatedly in different settings.

The rat was always present.

What does biological preparedness theory explain regarding conditioned taste aversions?

People can learn any food aversion easily.

Food can be conditioned regardless of its effects.

All conditioned taste aversions are temporary.

Certain food associations are more easily learned due to evolution. (correct)

What does operant conditioning primarily rely on?

Strengthening or weakening voluntary responses. Signup and view all the answers

According to Thorndike's Law of Effect, what happens to responses followed by satisfying consequences?

They are more likely to be repeated. Signup and view all the answers

What type of fear can classical conditioning help explain in relation to trauma?

Conditioned fears Signup and view all the answers

What might trigger an emotional response years after a traumatic experience?

A related but non-threatening stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning pairs stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behaviors with outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement occurs after a specific number of responses. Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule is most likely to produce steady rates of responding?

Variable-interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

How does a variable-ratio schedule impact gambling behavior?

It increases the likelihood of addiction. Signup and view all the answers

What is a discriminative stimulus?

A cue that indicates when reinforcement is likely. Signup and view all the answers

What does the variable-interval schedule produce compared to the fixed-interval schedule?

Steady rates of response. Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Tolman introduce that challenged traditional behaviorist views?

Latent learning Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a variable-ratio schedule from a fixed-ratio schedule?

The number of responses required for reinforcement varies. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of schedule leads to lower overall rates of response due to the requirement for a fixed time to pass?

Fixed-interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of positive punishment on behavior?

It introduces an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates negative punishment?

Having a car towed for illegal parking. Signup and view all the answers

Why is physical punishment considered problematic?

It reinforces the idea that physical aggression is acceptable. Signup and view all the answers

What type of reinforcement occurs when a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs?

Continuous reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement is likely to create the most durable behavior?

Variable-ratio reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What does negative punishment aim to achieve?

Decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of using punishment as a behavior modification technique?

It might fail to produce any behavioral change. Signup and view all the answers

What is an effective alternative to punishment for modifying behavior?

Reinforcing desired behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a stimulus that does not naturally bring about the response of interest before conditioning?

Neutral stimulus (NS) Signup and view all the answers

Which component of classical conditioning is defined as a natural response that does not require training?

Unconditioned response (UCR) Signup and view all the answers

When a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, what does it elicit after conditioning?

A conditioned response (CR) Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in classical conditioning according to the process described?

Introduce the neutral stimulus (NS) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the difference between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli?

Conditioned stimuli are learned while unconditioned stimuli are innate. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus?

The conditioned response becomes extinct. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) play in classical conditioning?

It elicits a response without prior learning. Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov's experiment, what was the response that the dogs exhibited when they learned about food?

Salivation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

To trigger an unconditioned response innately Signup and view all the answers

What must occur for extinction to take place in classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus must be presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

How is a neutral stimulus converted into a conditioned stimulus?

Through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding the conditioned response and unconditioned response?

They are triggered by different stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?

A similar response occurs to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What might lead to spontaneous recovery after extinction has occurred?

The passage of time without any interaction with the conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

In evaluative conditioning, what is the goal of pairing a stimulus with positive or negative stimuli?

To change the emotional response associated with the original stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when a response decreases until it eventually disappears?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

To increase the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a primary reinforcer?

A stimulus that satisfies a biological need naturally Signup and view all the answers

In the context of operant conditioning, what is shaping?

Teaching complex behavior by reinforcing closer approximations Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a negative reinforcer is removed?

The probability of the response being repeated increases Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a secondary reinforcer?

Money Signup and view all the answers

How do positive reinforcers affect behavioral response?

They increase the likelihood of the response by adding a stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates negative reinforcement?

Turning off a loud alarm when the correct button is pressed Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best aligns with Thorndike's research impact on B.F. Skinner?

Studying behavior in a highly controlled chamber Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning

Learning is defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge or skills.
Key questions about learning include: What is the meaning of learning? How do we learn new things? What facilitates and hinders learning?

Pavlov's Unexpected Discovery

Pavlov's research focused on the secretion of stomach acids and salivation in dogs.
Dogs exhibited anticipatory responses (stomach acids, salivation) in the absence of food, triggered by associated stimuli such as the experimenter's footsteps.
This demonstrated learning, specifically an association between stimuli that preceded food and the food itself.
The dogs' responses were linked to learning (classical conditioning) and not only biological needs.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, triggering a learned response.
Components:
- Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not produce a particular response.
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning.
- Unconditioned response (UCR): The automatic response triggered by the UCS.
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a learned response.
- Conditioned response (CR): The learned response triggered by the CS.

Basics of Classical Conditioning

Neutral stimulus (NS) does not initially bring about the response, contrasted with unconditioned stimulus that causes the response.
Example; sound of bell before conditioning / response to meat powder before conditioning.
UCR (unconditioned response); the natural response that occurs irrespective of prior learning
Example; salivation to smell of meat powder.
The neutral stimulus (NS) becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS).
After conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits the conditioned response that results in the same response given by the UCR.
The response (CR) matches the same response to the UCR.

Classical Conditioning Steps

A neutral stimulus (e.g., a metronome or bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., meat powder), which elicits an unconditioned response (e.g., salivation).
After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR).

The Basics of Classical Conditioning - Further

Learn that "conditioned" indicates learning, while "unconditioned" signifies natural or innate reactions.
An unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response; the association creates a conditioned response via a conditioned stimulus.
A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after repeated pairings with a UCS.

Unlearning

Extinction is the procedure that can stop the conditioned response.
This happens when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

After learning, similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus may trigger the conditioned response.
The resemblance increases the likelihood of stimulus generalization.
Stimuli different from the original conditioned stimulus produce similar responses. This is referred to as stimulus discrimination.

Evaluative Conditioning

A form of classical conditioning in which changing the liking of a stimulus comes from associating that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli.
Pairing a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that causes a reaction, turns this NS into a conditioned stimulus (CS), generating the same reaction.
The CS elicits a positive response such as in advertisements and marketing.

Conditioned Fears and Phobias

Fears and phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning, exemplified by Watson's Little Albert experiment.
This involves associating a neutral stimulus (e.g., a rat) with a fear-inducing stimulus (e.g., a loud noise).
The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus triggering the conditioned response of fear.

Conditioned Taste Aversions

People develop aversions to foods after associating them with nausea or illness.
This process, known as conditioned taste aversion, differs from standard conditioning due to the significant delay between the food and the illness.
Biological factors likely play a role in the development of conditioned taste aversions, as certain associations may be more readily learned.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of learning where voluntary actions are strengthened or weakened depending on their consequences (rewards or punishments).
It differs from classical conditioning, which involves involuntary reflexes.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and more likely to be repeated.
Responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened and less likely to be repeated.
Thorndike believed this process occurs automatically over time and experience.

The Basics of Operant Conditioning

Thorndike's research inspired Skinner, leading to the design of the Skinner box for studying operant conditioning.
Skinner used the box to observe how organisms operate in their environment.
The objective of the box was to modify behaviours when dealing with food reward and environmental elements.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement strengthens a preceding behaviour, increasing its likelihood of repetition.
A reinforcer is any stimulus that elevates the probability of a behaviour's recurrence.
Primary reinforcers satisfy basic biological needs (e.g., food, warmth), while secondary reinforcers gain reinforcement through association with primary ones (e.g., money).

Shaping

Shaping involves teaching a complex behaviour by reinforcing increasingly closer approximations of the desired response.
It starts by rewarding any behaviour similar to the target behaviour.
The process continues by reinforcing responses closer and closer to the desired behaviour, finally rewarding only the exact desired response.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

Positive reinforcement involves adding a stimulus to increase a behaviour.
Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behaviour

Positive and Negative Punishment

Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus.
Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Different patterns of reinforcement frequency and timing affect behaviour.
Continuous reinforcement provides reinforcement every time a behaviour occurs, while partial reinforcement reinforces a behaviour sometimes, but not always.
Partial reinforcement often leads to more resilient and enduring behaviours.

Fixed and Variable-Ratio Schedules

Fixed-ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a varying number of responses, leading to higher and more consistent rates of behaviour.

Fixed and Variable-Interval Schedules

Fixed-interval schedules deliver reinforcement after a specific time interval.
Variable-interval schedules deliver reinforcement after varying time intervals, resulting in more consistent behaviour.

Discrimination and Generalization

Discriminative stimuli signal the likelihood of reinforcement following a response.
Learning involves discriminating between stimuli and responding differentially and generalization where similar stimuli evoke similar responses.

Latent Learning

Latent learning is the acquisition of knowledge without observable behaviour until it is reinforced.
Tolman tested this by showing rats could form mental maps in mazes even without a reward.

Observational Learning

Observational Learning is learning by observing and imitating behaviours of others.
Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated the importance of models and their consequences on learning.
Observing media violence can increase aggressive behaviour, lower inhibitions, distort understanding, and desensitize individuals.

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Description

This quiz explores the key concepts of learning, particularly focusing on classical conditioning as demonstrated by Pavlov's experiments with dogs. It discusses the mechanism of acquiring new knowledge or skills and delves into the processes that facilitate and hinder learning. Test your understanding of these foundational psychological principles.