Psychology Chapter on Learning and Conditioning

Learning

• Learning is defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge or skills.
• Key questions about learning include: What is the meaning of learning? How do we learn new things? What facilitates and hinders learning?

Pavlov's Unexpected Discovery

• Pavlov's research focused on the secretion of stomach acids and salivation in dogs.
• Dogs exhibited anticipatory responses (stomach acids, salivation) in the absence of food, triggered by associated stimuli such as the experimenter's footsteps.
• This demonstrated learning, specifically an association between stimuli that preceded food and the food itself.
• The dogs' responses were linked to learning (classical conditioning) and not only biological needs.

Classical Conditioning

• A type of learning where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, triggering a learned response.
• Components:
  • Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not produce a particular response.
  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning.
  • Unconditioned response (UCR): The automatic response triggered by the UCS.
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a learned response.
  • Conditioned response (CR): The learned response triggered by the CS.

Basics of Classical Conditioning

• Neutral stimulus (NS) does not initially bring about the response, contrasted with unconditioned stimulus that causes the response.
• Example; sound of bell before conditioning / response to meat powder before conditioning.
• UCR (unconditioned response); the natural response that occurs irrespective of prior learning
• Example; salivation to smell of meat powder.
• The neutral stimulus (NS) becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS).
• After conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits the conditioned response that results in the same response given by the UCR.
• The response (CR) matches the same response to the UCR.

Classical Conditioning Steps

• A neutral stimulus (e.g., a metronome or bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., meat powder), which elicits an unconditioned response (e.g., salivation).
• After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR).

The Basics of Classical Conditioning - Further

• Learn that "conditioned" indicates learning, while "unconditioned" signifies natural or innate reactions.
• An unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response; the association creates a conditioned response via a conditioned stimulus.
• A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after repeated pairings with a UCS.

Unlearning

• Extinction is the procedure that can stop the conditioned response.
• This happens when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

• After learning, similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus may trigger the conditioned response.
• The resemblance increases the likelihood of stimulus generalization.
• Stimuli different from the original conditioned stimulus produce similar responses. This is referred to as stimulus discrimination.

Evaluative Conditioning

• A form of classical conditioning in which changing the liking of a stimulus comes from associating that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli.
• Pairing a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that causes a reaction, turns this NS into a conditioned stimulus (CS), generating the same reaction.
• The CS elicits a positive response such as in advertisements and marketing.

Conditioned Fears and Phobias

• Fears and phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning, exemplified by Watson's Little Albert experiment.
• This involves associating a neutral stimulus (e.g., a rat) with a fear-inducing stimulus (e.g., a loud noise).
• The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus triggering the conditioned response of fear.

Conditioned Taste Aversions

• People develop aversions to foods after associating them with nausea or illness.
• This process, known as conditioned taste aversion, differs from standard conditioning due to the significant delay between the food and the illness.
• Biological factors likely play a role in the development of conditioned taste aversions, as certain associations may be more readily learned.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is a form of learning where voluntary actions are strengthened or weakened depending on their consequences (rewards or punishments).
• It differs from classical conditioning, which involves involuntary reflexes.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

• Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and more likely to be repeated.
• Responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened and less likely to be repeated.
• Thorndike believed this process occurs automatically over time and experience.

The Basics of Operant Conditioning

• Thorndike's research inspired Skinner, leading to the design of the Skinner box for studying operant conditioning.
• Skinner used the box to observe how organisms operate in their environment.
• The objective of the box was to modify behaviours when dealing with food reward and environmental elements.

Reinforcement

• Reinforcement strengthens a preceding behaviour, increasing its likelihood of repetition.
• A reinforcer is any stimulus that elevates the probability of a behaviour's recurrence.
• Primary reinforcers satisfy basic biological needs (e.g., food, warmth), while secondary reinforcers gain reinforcement through association with primary ones (e.g., money).

Shaping

• Shaping involves teaching a complex behaviour by reinforcing increasingly closer approximations of the desired response.
• It starts by rewarding any behaviour similar to the target behaviour.
• The process continues by reinforcing responses closer and closer to the desired behaviour, finally rewarding only the exact desired response.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcement involves adding a stimulus to increase a behaviour.
• Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behaviour

Positive and Negative Punishment

• Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
• Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus.
• Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Different patterns of reinforcement frequency and timing affect behaviour.
• Continuous reinforcement provides reinforcement every time a behaviour occurs, while partial reinforcement reinforces a behaviour sometimes, but not always.
• Partial reinforcement often leads to more resilient and enduring behaviours.

Fixed and Variable-Ratio Schedules

• Fixed-ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses.
• Variable-ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a varying number of responses, leading to higher and more consistent rates of behaviour.

Fixed and Variable-Interval Schedules

• Fixed-interval schedules deliver reinforcement after a specific time interval.
• Variable-interval schedules deliver reinforcement after varying time intervals, resulting in more consistent behaviour.

Discrimination and Generalization

• Discriminative stimuli signal the likelihood of reinforcement following a response.
• Learning involves discriminating between stimuli and responding differentially and generalization where similar stimuli evoke similar responses.

Latent Learning

• Latent learning is the acquisition of knowledge without observable behaviour until it is reinforced.
• Tolman tested this by showing rats could form mental maps in mazes even without a reward.

Observational Learning

• Observational Learning is learning by observing and imitating behaviours of others.
• Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated the importance of models and their consequences on learning.
• Observing media violence can increase aggressive behaviour, lower inhibitions, distort understanding, and desensitize individuals.