Animal Defense: Innate vs Adaptive Immunity

Trends and Strategies in Defense Against Disease

• After this lesson, the goal is to describe the trends and compare the strategies used by animals for defense

Topics Covered

• Innate immunity vs. Adaptive immunity
• Innate immunity in indicative animal groups

Immune Systems

• Bodily defense against external molecules or bodies
• Seeks to limit or prevent infections
• Can be innate or adaptive

Innate Immunity

• Offers primary defense in all animals
• Protects against a wide range of pathogens such as:
  • Viruses, detected by dsRNA (nucleic acid in genome)
  • Bacterium, detected by Flagellin (protein in flagella)
  • Fungus, detected by Mannan (oligosaccharide in cell wall)

Adaptive Immunity

• Unique to vertebrates
• Protects from specific classes of pathogens

Innate Immunity in Poriferans (sponges)

• Sponges feed through filter feeding
• Sponges produce secondary metabolites like antibiotic compounds, neurotoxins

Innate Immunity in Cnidarians

• Have nematocysts
• Produce a variety of toxins
• Some produce antimicrobial compounds

Innate Immunity in Helminths (worms)

• Flatworms use phagocytic cells to engulf microbes
• Flatworms produce perforin (protein) that induces lysis

Innate Immunity in worms, specifically Annelids (segmented worms)

• Produce antimicrobial compounds
• Cells have phagocytic abilities
• Body fluids have antimicrobial and clotting abilities

Innate Immunity in Mollusks

• Anatomic barrier defense as the first line of defense using shells
• Phagocytic cells known as hemocytes in body fluids engulf and destroy small invaders
• Body fluids secrete toxic compounds like lysozymes & NO

Innate Immunity in Arthropods

• Barrier defense and internal Immune defense
• Barrier Defense is the first line of defense using:
• Exoskeleton made of chitin
• Chitin and peritrophic membrane
• Lysozyme destroys bacterial cell walls

Internal immune defense in Arthropods

• Immune cells produce proteins that bind to molecules common to pathogens
• Immune cells involved:
• Bacteria with PAMPs including :
  • LPS
  • Peptidoglycans
  • Glycolipids
  • Lipoproteins
• Viruses such as:
  • ssRNA
  • Envelope Proteins
• Damage-associated molecular patterns may include:
  • Biglycans
  • S100 proteins
  • Fibrinogen
• Pattern recognition receptors include:
  • TLRs
  • NLRs
  • RLRs

Internal immune defense (2nd line of defense)

• Hemocytes are major immune cells in insects.
• Pathogen neutralizing mechanisms include:
  • Phagocytosis
  • Generating melanin to trap pathogens
  • Releasing antimicrobial peptides

Summary of immune strategies used across species

• The immune system protects animals from threats in the environment.
• Innate immunity is not specific and protects against a wide range of pathogens, using phagocytic cells, antimicrobial enzymes, and toxic substances
• Adaptive immunity is specific, protecting against specific classes of pathogens, with the unique aspect of immunological memory

Transport Mechanisms in Plants

• By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Compare and contrast xylem and phloem tissues
• Summarize the mechanism of water and food transport in plants

Tissues in transport in plants

• Xylem

  • Vessel elements
  • Tracheids
  • Dead at maturity

• Phloem

  • Sieve tube elements
  • Companion cells
  • Alive at maturity

Different Pathways of Transport

• Apoplastic route
  • Water moves along cell walls of neighboring cells.
• Symplastic route
  • Water moves along the cytosol of neighboring cells.
• Transmembrane route
  • Water repeatedly crosses cell membranes of neighboring cells.
  • Apoplast includes the continuum of cell walls and extracellular spaces
  • Symplast is continuum of cytosol connected by plasmodesmata

Route of water transport

• Water and minerals moving from soil -> xylem
• Photosynthesis products moving from leaves -> phloem

Mechanism of Water Transport

• During Transpiration, water vapor is lost from leaves via stomata
• Water travels up through the plant
• Water is absorbed by roots

Cohesion-Tension Hypothesis

• Water potential is higher in roots, and lower as water moves upwards
• Water moving upwards from roots to the leaves

Mechanism of Sugar Transport

• Translocation is transporting photosynthesis products
• Transport moves from source to sink
• Sucrose is transported within plants
• Bulk flow occurs via positive pressure in sieve tube

Summary of Transport in Plants

• Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals, while phloem transports photosynthesis products.
• Transpiration drives water and mineral transport from roots to shoots
• Cohesion-tension hypothesis moves xylem sap by water potential difference
• Sugars are transported from sources to sinks through phloem

Trends and Strategies Used by Organisms to Transport Materials

• Lesson goal, describe trends and compare strategies used by organisms to transport materials for energy utilization and maintenance.

Unicellular Organisms

• Cell surfaces facilitates exchange with outside environment

Non-Vascular plants

• Plants are shorter than vascular plants
• They have no transport system for essential minerals, water, and food
• Rhizoids or root-like structures used for anchorage

Vascular Plants

• Xylem and pholem conduct water and food.

Sponges

• Body plan allows cells to have direct contact with the environment
• Diffusion occurs readily
• No circulatory system

Cnidarians transport

• Cnidarians example: Sea Jellies
• Gastrovascular Cavity involved
  • Distributes substances through the animal body
  • Fluid bathes both inner and outer tissue allowing exchange of important gases and waste

Circulatory Systems

• Transport material in higher forms of animals
• Moves fluid around the cells' surroundings and tissues where the exchange the materials
• There are three basic part of transport: circulatory fluid, set of interconnected vessels, and muscular pump like a heart
• Open Circulatory System
  • Hemolymph is the fluid in the circulatory system, which mixes with the interstitial fluid (bathes body cells)
  • Found in most mollusks & arthropods; the heart pumps hemolymph to interconnected sinuses where exchange of matericals happens
• Closed Circulatory System
  • Circulatory fluid is blood, which is different than interstitial fluid
  • Involves blood is confined to vessels, where the heart pumps blood into smaller vessels
  • Found in annelids, cephalopods, and vertebrates

Circulatory Systems

• Fish
  • Single circuit blood flow and 2 chambered hear
• Amphibians
  • 2 circuits including: pulmonary & systemic. Also, a 3 chambered heart
• Reptiles
  • 2 circuits and most have a 3 chambered heart
• Mammals & birds
  • 2 circuits and 4 chambered heart. This system is highly specialized

Summary of Transport Strategy

• Organisms have varied circulatory adaptations for essential materials.
  • Simpler organisms use diffusion, while complex organisms evolved to have circulatory or vascular systems.
  • All animals adapt with internal circulatory systems to deal with distance between cells and external exchange media.

Mammalian Heart and Blood Circulation

• After completing this lesson, identify the parts of the human cardiovascular system and name the function of each item

Topics for Mammalian heart

• Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
• Cardiac Cycle
• Blood Pressure
• Blood Components
• Blood Clotting

Mammalian Heart

• The mammalian heart has a valve to prevent backflow

Heart Valves

• Tricuspid valve
• Bicuspid (Mitral) valve
• Pulmonary valve
• Aortic valve

Sinoatrial (SA) node

• Cluster of autorhythmic cells located in the wall of right atrium

Blood Vessels

• Arteries: Arterioles
• Veins: Venules

Cardiac Cycle

• Systole vs. Diastole

Terms to know

• Heart Rate
• Stroke volume
• Cardiac Output

Control Of Heart Rhythm

• Electrical signals travel around the heart in a set path.
• The cycle is:
  • Signals travel from the SA node through atria
  • Signals are delayed at AV node
  • Bundle branches pass signals to the apex
  • Signals spread throughout ventricles

Blood Pressure

• Force of blood against artery walls that's measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg)
• Systolic pressure is arterial blood pressure during ventricular systole
• For example, 120/80: would be
  • Pressure in cuff greater than 120 mm Hg
  • Pressure in cuff drops below 120 mg Hg
  • Pressure in cuff below 70 mmHg

Blood Components

• Plasma
• Electrolytes and molecules
• Red blood cells
• White blood cells
• Platelets are cell fragments
• Separated blood shows these elements:
  • Leukocytes (white blood cells), from 5,000-10,000
  • Platelets
  • Erythrocytes (red blood cells) at 5,000,000-6,000,000
  • Electrolytes including: Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride and Bicarbonate.

Blood Components and structure

• Red blood cells
• Biconcave discs; no nucleus
• White blood cells include: Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Monocyte, Lymphocyte

Blood Clotting

• The clotting process begins when damaged endothelium exposes connective tissue in the blood vessels
• Platelets form a plug that protects against blood loss.
• A fibrin clot reinforces the plug.
  • Process by released factors from the clumped platelets that mixes with plasma to form an activation enzymic cascade. In the enzymic cascade, Prothrombin becomes Thrombin that converts fibrinogen to Fibrin, which weaves a clot

Blood Clotting process

• Injury causes damage in the endothelium
• Platelets gather at the site of injury that releases the clotting factors
• The clotting factors start a cascade of reaction forming Thrombin from prothrombin from prothrombin
• Thombin coverts fibrinogen to fibrin through threads

Summary on blood

• Mammalian hearts have four chambers, where coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation.
  • Heart action occurs because of systole and diastole; the heartbeat originates with impulses at the SA node.
  • Blood is composed of plasma, red and white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen. White blood cells defend against foreign substances. Platelets start blood clotting by converting fibrinogen to fibrin.
• A thrombus is a blood clot

Human Digestive System

• Lesson goal: identify and describe the parts of human digestive system and assign thier functions

Characteristics of the Digestive system

• Accessory organs of the alimentary canal include:
  • Gall Bladder
  • Liver
  • Pancreas
• Are not part of the alimentary canal
• Do not come in contact with ingested food
• No mechanical digestion occur
• Accessory roles in chemical digestion

Human Digestive System

• The process of food begins at mouth, then the process enters the esophagus. Then continues in Stomach to intestines where waste products are secreted using the Anus
• Mouth with saliva glands
  • Uses 5-10 sec to digest
• Stomach, then food is retained for 2-6 hrs where digestion is preformed.
  • 2-6hrs are utilized,
• Small intestine is where Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur
• Food is passed around over a period of 5-6 hours
• Large intestine utilizes 12-24hrs where materials pass, such as un-digested food
  • Used for 2-6hrs
• Rectum
• Anus

Regions for digestion

• Specialized compartments lower esophageal
• Sphincters are circular muscles sphincter – Control passage of materials rugae

Mouth - Oral Cavity

• Teeth
• Salivary glands secrets the Saliva
• Enzymes - Lysozyme that protects mucus and protects the Mouth
• Amylase used in breakdown of starch and glycogen to create polysaccharides
• Electrolytes (buffering action that prevents minerals in teeth from dissolving and antibacterial chemicals)
• Tongue forms a bolus with saliva

Processes in the Body

• Process goes through Pharynx, heart, esophagus, into smooth muscle
• Sphincters move things easily.
• Hearburn occurs when chyme moves to esophagal

Breakdown

3. to a 5. . As they move towards Stomach 6.

Gastric Fluids - Stomach

• Food storage
• Process food into suspension
• Rugae incrases surface areas with folds
• Chyme turns into bolsus + gastric jucies when processing

Gastric Glands

• Have 3 types of cells

1. Parietal Cells

• H+ and Cl- diffuse channels and to break down stomach contents
• HCL produce into Stomach
• The Parietal denature, protein and microorganism

2. Chief cells

• Needs HCL to break down nutrients
• Smaller poly peptides can be produce

3. Mucus Cells

• These cells create mucus protection

Small Intestine

• Endrocine and digestion occur _ >6m/20ft
• 3 sections occurs:
  • Duodenum -> Jejunum / llejm process water and nutrition
• Diameter is lower then compared to the large _ Small finger and projections _ Lined with microvilli

Digestion and absorption

• In the dodeum sections of the
• Intestines are accesory

‣ Pancreas help the bicarbonate to clean and neutrize the acid chyme in the gut region ‣ Liver helps liver/bile product process, contains electrocytes. Gallbalder can store bile products that emulsifys fats in small intastine

Breakdown

• Active transports- vitamin etc
• Emphasification
• Microvills

Large Intestine

• At 6 fit Long
• Cecum - reduced
• Appendix to the intestinal
• Intestiral helps the body move, to control the body with bads

Large instestine

• Digestion occurs then moves as fluid,
• Has WBCS or other
• Bacteria is important for bacteria
• Cecem/transv
• Microbs are used to control the body
• Moves through systalsy

Summary

• The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients for our bodies,
• Our digevtive system breaks
• Small intestine
• All three
• Persaltic muscles control the sytems