Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of mitochondria in a cell?
Powerhouse of the cell; ATP production
Which of the following elements are considered the four main elements in the body?
Which of the following is the correct hierarchy of structural organization?
What is the process of cell division called?
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Histology is the study of ______.
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What type of joint is characterized as freely movable?
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Smooth muscle is characterized by striations.
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The skeletal muscle is involuntary.
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What are the two main parts of the skin?
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What is the main role of osteoblasts?
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Which type of muscle is found in the heart?
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What is the largest and strongest bone in the body?
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The chemical bonds formed by the sharing of electrons are called ______.
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What muscle abducts the eyeballs?
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Match the following types of arthritis with their descriptions:
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What is the largest muscle for breathing?
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Which cranial nerve innervates the superior oblique muscle?
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Which of the following muscles contracts to elevate the ribs for inhalation? (Select all that apply)
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What nerve innervates the diaphragm?
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What action is performed by the serratus anterior muscle?
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What is the 'big shoulder muscle' known as?
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Which group of muscles is known as 'I Like Spines'?
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What is the strongest hip flexor?
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What condition is caused by chronic irritation of the plantar aponeurosis at the calcaneus?
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What is the function of oligodendrocytes?
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What is the primary role of sensory neurons?
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Which layers of the meninges are present in the spinal cord? (Select all that apply)
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What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?
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Which cranial nerve is responsible for smell?
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What is the pathway for tears?
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Emmetropia refers to nearsightedness.
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What condition involves a loss of vision due to clouding of the lens?
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What is the role of the cerebellum?
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What type of receptors are involved in gustation?
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Study Notes
Anatomy vs. Physiology
- Anatomy focuses on the structure of body parts, while physiology pertains to their function.
- Structural organization progresses from chemical level (atoms, molecules) to organism level.
Homeostasis
- Homeostasis maintains stable internal conditions.
- Positive feedback amplifies changes, while negative feedback counters changes to restore equilibrium.
Body Cavities
- Ventral cavity includes thoracic (pleural, pericardial, mediastinum) and abdominopelvic cavities.
- Dorsal cavity encompasses cranial (brain) and vertebral (spinal cord) cavities.
Elements in the Body
- Four primary elements: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, and Hydrogen.
Atoms and Chemical Bonds
- Atoms consist of protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (-).
- Ionic bonds involve electron transfer (cations lose, anions gain); covalent bonds involve electron sharing; hydrogen bonds are weak attractions.
Metabolism
- Metabolic processes include catabolism (breaking down) and anabolism (building up).
pH and Organic Compounds
- pH reflects acidity or alkalinity; organic compounds must contain carbon.
Macromolecules
- Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Lipids, which are insoluble in water, provide long-term energy storage.
- Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
- Nucleic acids include DNA (double-stranded) and RNA (single-stranded).
Cell Structure and Function
- Three main cell structures: plasma membrane (selectively permeable), cytoplasm (contains organelles), and nucleus (houses DNA).
- Mitochondria produce ATP; ribosomes synthesize proteins; rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures proteins; Golgi apparatus packages proteins.
DNA and RNA
- DNA contains nucleotide pairs (A-T, G-C) with deoxyribose sugar; RNA contains uracil instead of thymine and ribose sugar.
Cell Division (Mitosis)
- Four stages of mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, followed by cytokinesis (cell division).
Tissue Types
- Four primary tissue types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous.
- Epithelial tissue is avascular and covers surfaces. It includes endocrine and exocrine types.
- Connective tissue supports and binds other tissues, including cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage), bone, and blood.
- Muscular tissue has skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary), and smooth types (involuntary).
- Nervous tissue contains neurons and neuroglia.
Skin Structure
- Skin consists of two main layers: epidermis (outer layer, keratinized) and dermis (inner layer, connective tissue).
- Hypodermis lies beneath the dermis, providing insulation.
- Melanin contributes to skin color; various pigments include hemoglobin and carotene.
Bone Types and Structure
- Major bone types: Long (e.g., humerus), Short (e.g., wrist), Flat (e.g., skull), Irregular (e.g., vertebrae), and Sesamoid (e.g., patella).
- Diaphysis (shaft) and epiphysis (ends) are key bone structures.
- Osteoblasts build bone, osteocytes maintain it, and osteoclasts break it down.
Human Skeleton
- Adult skeleton has 206 bones: 126 in appendicular and 80 in axial skeleton.
- Key skeletal structures include the ethmoid and sphenoid bones, mandible (lower jaw), zygomatic bones (cheekbones), and variations in vertebrae.
Joints
- Joints are classified into synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely movable).
- Types of structural joints include fibrous (e.g., sutures), cartilaginous (e.g., pubic symphysis), and synovial (most common).
Muscle Types and Function
- Three muscle types: Skeletal (voluntary, striated), Cardiac (involuntary, striated), and Smooth (involuntary, non-striated).
- Muscles connect through tendons and move bones, requiring electrical stimulation for contraction.
Muscle Contraction Mechanics
- Contraction involves sliding filaments (myosin and actin) that shorten the sarcomere without changing filament lengths.
- Neuromuscular junction facilitates communication between nerve and muscle using acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
Muscle Actions
- Isotonic contractions change muscle length (concentric and eccentric); isometric contractions maintain muscle length.
- Special movements include dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, inversion, and eversion.
Role of Muscles
- Differentiate between origin (stationary) and insertion (movable) of muscles.
- Agonists are primary movers; antagonists oppose them; synergists assist.
Breathing and Shoulder Muscles
- Diaphragm is the main muscle for ventilation, innervated by the phrenic nerve.
- Rotator cuff muscles stabilize shoulder; muscles of mastication are innervated by the trigeminal nerve.### Muscular System
- Iliopsoas: Comprised of iliacus and psoas major, instrumental in hip flexion.
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Deep Lateral Rotators of Hip: Mnemonic "P GO GO Q," includes:
- Piriformis
- Gemellus superior
- Obturator internus
- Gemellus inferior
- Obturator externus
- Quadratus femoris
- Sartorius: Longest muscle in the body; originates at the Anterior Superior Iliac Spine (ASIS); innervated by the femoral nerve.
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Quadriceps Group: Located anteriorly on the thigh, innervated by the femoral nerve, consisting of:
- Rectus femoris
- Vastus medialis
- Vastus lateralis
- Vastus intermedius
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Hamstring Group: Located posteriorly on the thigh, innervated by parts of the sciatic nerve, consisting of:
- Biceps femoris
- Semitendinosus
- Semimembranosus
- Gastrocnemius: Comprised of medial and lateral heads; inserts onto the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon; responsible for plantarflexion.
- Soleus: Also inserts onto the calcaneal tendon; plays a role in foot plantarflexion.
- Plantaris: Inserts onto the calcaneal tendon; assists in plantarflexion of the foot.
- Plantar Fasciitis: A painful heel condition resulting from chronic irritation of the plantar aponeurosis at the calcaneus.
Nervous System
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Cell Types:
- Neurons: Electrically excitable, send action potentials.
- Neuroglia: Supportive cells.
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Neuronal Functions:
- Sensory (afferent) neurons send impulses to the CNS.
- Motor (efferent) neurons send impulses to muscles/glands.
- Interneurons link sensory and motor neurons in the CNS.
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Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Comprises brain and spinal cord.
- Contains neuroglia such as oligodendrocytes (myelin production), astrocytes (blood-brain barrier), ependymal cells (CSF creation), and microglial cells (debris absorption).
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Includes the autonomic nervous system (ANS) (sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions) and somatic nervous system (SNS).
- Contains Schwann cells (PNS myelin creation) and satellite cells (environment maintenance).
- Action Potentials: Enable communication over short and long distances; resting phase at -75mV, threshold at -55mV, depolarization peaks at +30mV.
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Neuron Structure:
- Dendrites collect electrical signals.
- Cell body integrates signals and generates output to the axon.
- Axon transmits signals to other neurons or effectors.
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Conduction Types:
- Saltatory conduction: Faster, occurs in myelinated neurons.
- Continuous conduction: Slower, occurs in unmyelinated neurons.
Spinal Cord and Reflexes
- Extends from the brainstem to L1/L2 vertebrae.
- Meninges: Three protective layers - dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.
- Comprised of 31 spinal nerves and dermatomes that transmit sensory impulses.
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Plexuses:
- Cervical Plexus (C1-C4): Includes phrenic nerve for diaphragm innervation.
- Brachial Plexus (C5-T1): Major nerves include musculocutaneous, axillary, radial, median, and ulnar.
- Lumbar Plexus (T12-L5): Contains femoral and obturator nerves.
- Sacral Plexus (L4-S4): Includes the sciatic nerve.
- Gray Matter: Processes incoming and outgoing signals; white matter transmits impulses to/from the brain.
- Reflex Types: Stretch, flexor (withdrawal), and crossed extensor.
- Shingles: Caused by herpes zoster, follows dermatomal lines.
- Blood-Brain Barrier and CSF: Protect the CNS; CSF circulates and provides cushioning.
Brain Regions
- Brainstem: Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; regulates breathing and heart rate.
- Cerebellum: Responsible for posture, balance, and coordination.
- Diencephalon: Includes epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus (homeostasis regulation).
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Cranial Nerves:
- CN I: Olfactory, sensory for smell.
- CN II: Optic, sensory for vision.
- CN III: Oculomotor, motor for eye muscles.
- CN IV: Trochlear, motor for superior oblique of eye.
- CN V: Trigeminal, sensory and motor for facial sensation and mastication.
- CN VI: Abducens, motor for lateral rectus of eye.
- CN VII: Facial, both sensory for taste and motor for facial expressions.
- CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear, sensory for hearing and balance.
- CN IX: Glossopharyngeal, both sensory for taste and motor for swallowing.
- CN X: Vagus, both sensory for taste and motor for digestion.
- CN XI: Accessory, motor for SCM and trapezius muscles.
- CN XII: Hypoglossal, motor for tongue movements.
Autonomic Nervous System
- Preganglionic vs Postganglionic Neurons: Differentiated by location and function in signal transmission.
- Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares body for "fight or flight" response; originates in T12-L2/3.
- Parasympathetic Nervous System: Responsible for "rest and digest" activities; originates in cranial nerve nuclei and S2-S4 segments.
- Receptor Types: Cholinergic receptors respond to acetylcholine; adrenergic receptors respond to norepinephrine.
Sensation and Perception
- Definitions: Sensation involves detecting stimuli; perception is interpreting sensory input.
- Pain Types: Deep pain comes from body structures; visceral pain arises from internal organs.
- Proprioception: Relates to body position; differentiated by muscle spindles (sense muscle stretch) and deep tendon organs (sense tension).
Special Senses
- Olfaction (Smell): A chemical sense with receptors in olfactory epithelium, carried by CN I.
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Gustation (Taste):
- Five primary tastes: sour, sweet, bitter, salty, umami.
- Taste receptors located in papillae; types containing taste buds include vallate, fungiform, and foliate.
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Vision:
- Tear pathway: Lacrimal glands → ducts → puncta → canaliculi → sac → nasolacrimal duct → nasal cavity.
- Photoreceptors: Rods for dim light, cones for color.
- Conditions: Emmetropia (normal), hypertropia (farsighted), myopia (nearsighted), astigmatism.
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Hearing:
- Sound vibrations converted to electrical signals; divided into external, middle, and inner ear components.
- Development: Eyes and ears develop 22 days post-fertilization.
- Conditions: Differentiate between cataracts (clouding of the lens) and glaucoma (increased intraocular pressure).
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Description
Explore the foundational concepts of Anatomy and Physiology in this quiz designed for Chapter 1. Cover key topics including the hierarchy of structural organization, homeostasis, and directional terms. Test your knowledge on the body's systems and cavities.
