Final Review Outline- COD.docx

**[Chapter 1]** - Anatomy vs Physiology - Hierarchy of structural organization - Chemical \[atoms & molecules\] -\> Cells -\> Tissues -\> Organs -\> Organ system-\> Organism - Homeostasis - Positive vs Negative feedback - Directional terms - Body cavities -...

**[Chapter 1]** - Anatomy vs Physiology - Hierarchy of structural organization - Chemical \[atoms & molecules\] -\> Cells -\> Tissues -\> Organs -\> Organ system-\> Organism - Homeostasis - Positive vs Negative feedback - Directional terms - Body cavities - Ventral cavity - Thoracic cavity - Pleural- lungs - Pericardial- \[around\] heart - \[superior\] mediastinum- sternum - Abdominopelvic \[abdominal and pelvic\] - Kidneys, stomach, intestines, bladder, reproductive organs, rectum, etc - Dorsal cavity - Cranial cavity- brain - Vertebral cavity- spinal cord **[Chapter 2]** - 4 main elements in body - Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon & Hydrogen - Atoms - Protons \[+\] - Neutrons \[0\] - Electrons \[-\] - Chemical bonds - Ionic bonds - Atoms gain or lose electrons by transferring them - Anion \[-\] = gains electron - Cation \[+\] = loses electron - Covalent bonds - Sharing electrons - Polar vs Nonpolar - Hydrogen bonds - Weak interactions between hydrogen and electronegative atoms - Metabolism - Catabolism vs Anabolism - Chemical reactions - Synthesis - Decomposition - Exchange - pH - Acids, Bases \[Alkaline\], or neutral - Organic compounds - Must be attached to a Carbon - Carbohydrates \[sugars\] - Monosaccharides \[1 simple sugar\] - Disaccharides \[2 sugars\] - Polysaccharides \[many sugars- complex carbohydrates\] - Lipids - Insoluble in water - Convert excess food into long-term energy storage - Proteins - Chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds - Nucleic acids - DNA vs RNA **[Chapter 3]** - 3 common structures of cell - Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus - Plasma membrane - Separates extracellular fluid from intracellular fluid - Selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol and proteins embedded in - Passive processes- no ATP required- substances move down concentration gradient - Diffusion - Tonicity - Isotonic solutions - Hypertonic solutions - Hypotonic solutions - Cytoplasm - Cytosol - Organelles - Mitochondria- "mighty mitochondria"- powerhouse of cell- ATP - Ribosomes- protein synthesis - Rough endoplasmic reticulum- manufactures proteins - Golgi apparatus- package and export proteins - Nucleus - DNA - Double stranded - Deoxyribose - In nucleus and too big to leave - Millions of pairs of nucleotides - 1 sugar, 1 phosphate group & 1 \[of 4\] bases - Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine - Adenine- Thymine Guanine- Cytosine - RNA - Single stranded - Ribose - Uracil instead of Thymine - Mitosis -- cell division - 4 stages - Prophase - Metaphase - Anaphase - Telophase - Cytokinesis = when cells split into two **[Chapter 4]** - Histology= study of tissues - 4 primary tissue types - Epithelial - Connective - Muscular - Nervous - Epithelial - Covers body surfaces and lines body cavities - Avascular - Know Endocrine vs Exocrine - Connective - Most widespread and varied - Support - Highly vascularized - Cartilage -- know where each is found - Hyaline- most abundant - Elastic - Fibrocartilage - Bone- supports & protects - Compact - Spongy - Blood- atypical connective tissue- liquid - Muscular- know differences - Skeletal - Cardiac - Smooth - Nervous- know differences - Neurons - Neuroglia - Steps of tissue repair - Inflammation - Organization - Regeneration - Fibrosis- formation of scar tissue **[Chapter 5]** - Skin - 2 layers - Epidermis - Outermost layer - Keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue - Thick \[5 layers\] vs thin skin \[4 layers\] - Layers from superficial to deep \[know parts of them\] - Stratum corneum - Stratum lucidum- only in thick skin \[palms/soles\] - Stratum granulosum - Stratum spinosum - Stratum basale - Dermis - Largest part of skin - Connective tissue - 2 layers from superficial to deep - Papillary - Reticular - Hypodermis- NOT A LAYER OF SKIN - Just deep to dermis - Skin pigments - Melanin - Pheomelanin - Eumelanin - Hemoglobin - Carotene - Vitiligo vs Albinism - Skin color in diagnosis - Cyanosis- blue- lack of oxygen - Erythema- redness - Jaundice- yellow- liver disorders - Skin cancers - Basal cell carcinoma - Squamous cell carcinoma - Malignant melanoma - ABCD\[E\] for early detection - A- Asymmetry - B- Borders - C- Color - D- Diameter - Burns \[ know differences\] - 1^st^ degree- epidermis- redness- swelling- pain - 2^nd^ degree- epidermis & part of dermis- blisters - 3^rd^ degree- epidermis & dermis- no pain- charring or white on skin- high risk of infection Chapter 6 - Types of bones - Long - Humerus, femur, ulna, radius, and phalanges - Short - Wrist bones and most ankle bones - Flat - Cranial bones, sternum, and scapulae - Irregular - Vertebrae, hip bones, facial bones, and calcaneus - Sesamoid -- located in tendons (patella is largest) - Diaphysis -- shaft; main portion of the bone - Epiphysis -- ends, proximal and distal - Osteoblasts: bone building cells - Synthesize and secrete collagen fibers and other organic components - Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts - Maintenance - Osteoclasts - Breakdown cells; bone resorption Chapter 7 - Total adult bones- 206 - Appendicular system- 126 bones - Axial -- 80 bones - Ethmoid bone - Crista galli - Cribiform plate - Deepest skull bone - Sphenoid bone - Greater/ Lesser wings - Optic canal - Mandible - Coronoid process - Lower jaw - Strongest bone of face - Zygomatic bones - Cheekbones - Cervical Vertebrae - 7 - Lordotic curvature in cervical spine (secondary) - Have transverse foramina - C1- no body but has lateral masses - C2- contains dens/ odontoid process - C3-C7- bifid spinous processes - Thoracic Vertebrae - 12 - Kyphotic curvature (primary) - Costal facets - Lumbar Vertebrae - 5 - Lordotic curvature (secondary) - Sacrum - 5 fused vertebrae - Sacral promontory (anterior side) - Base= top - Ala- wings - Coccyx - 3-5 fused vertebrae - Attaches to apex of sacrum - Ribs - 1-7= true- costal cartilage directly attaches to sternum - 8-12= false- costal cartilage is NOT directly attached to sternum, only attached to cartilage above - 11-12= false floating- No attachment to sternum - Sternum \[3 parts\] - Manubrium - Jugular notch - Body - Xiphoid process Chapter 8 - Pectoral girdle - Clavicle - Most commonly broken bone - Medial \[sternal end\] - Lateral end \[acromial end\] - Scapula - Contains glenoid cavity where head of humerus meets to form glenohumeral joint \[ball & socket\] - Spine of scapula becomes acromion - Arm- Humerus - Forearm - Radius- more lateral - Ulna- more medial - Pelvic girdle - 2 Hip bones \[Coxal bones\] - Made up of 3 parts - Ilium - Largest part - Most superior - Iliac crest, ASIS, AIIS, PSIS, PIIS - Ischium - Inferior and posterior portion - Contains ischial tuberosities - Pubis - Inferior and anterior portion - Two pubic bones meet with pubic symphysis \[cartilaginous joint\] - Thigh -- Femur bone - Largest/ strongest bone in body - Lower leg - Tibia - Weight bearing - Medial- has medial malleolus \[ankle\] - Fibula - Non-weight bearing - Lateral- has lateral malleolus \[ankle\] Chapter 9- Joints - Functional classification - Synarthroses -- immovable joints - Amphiarthroses -- slightly moveable joints - Diarthroses -- freely moveable joints - Structural classification - Fibrous joints (Synarthrotic) - Generally immovable - Examples - Sutures of skull - Gomphosis \[teeth into gums\] - Cartilaginous joints (Amphiarthrotic) - Immovable or slightly moveable - Examples - Pubic symphysis - Intervertebral discs - Synovial joints (Diarthrotic) - Freely moveable - Most common - Contain synovial fluid in joint cavity - Have articular cartilage \[hyaline cartilage\] covers the ends of bones of the joint - Ligaments reinforce the joint \[bone to bone\] - Types of synovial joints: - Planar/Gliding - Examples - Carpals - Tarsals - Condyloid - Examples - Metacarpal phalangeal \[MCP\] joints - Metatarsal phalangeal \[MTP\] joints - Pivot - Examples - Atlanto-axial joint \[C1 on C2\] for rotation - Radio-ulnar joint - Saddle - Examples - Carpal-metacarpal joint of 1^st^ digit \[thumb\] - Hinge - Examples - Elbow joint \[radius & ulna meet humerus\] - Knee joint \[femur and tibia meet- tibiofemoral\] - Ball & socket - Examples - Shoulder joint- glenohumeral joint - Where head of humerus meets glenoid cavity of scapula\] - Hip joint- acetabulofemoral joint - Where head of femur meets acetabulum of hip bone\] - Bursae -- flattened fibrous sacs- not part of joint - Filled with synovial fluid - Bursitis -- inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction - Tendon sheath - Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon - Tendonitis -- inflammation of tendon sheaths usually from overuse - Sprains - Ligaments are stretched or torn - Partial tears slowly repair themselves - Complete ruptures require prompt surgical repair - Dislocations (luxations) - Occur when bones are forced out of alignment - Caused by serious falls or playing sports - Subluxation---partial dislocation of a joint - Due to compression and shear stress - Arthritis - Inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints - Most widespread crippling disease in the United States - Osteoarthritis - Most common type - Also called DJD- degenerative joint disease - Due to "wear and tear" - Rheumatoid arthritis - [Chronic autoimmune disease ] - [Immune system attacks the joints] - Unknown cause - Most common in women ages 40-50- but can occur at any age - Bilateral inflammation of certain joints- can lead to deformities - Psoriatic arthritis - [Swelling of an entire finger or toe- can sometimes cause fingers and toes to look like sausages] - Ulnar deviation may be present - General joint pain and stiffness - Raised, red patches, often with silvery scale - Cause pitting of nails in 90% of people with psoriatic arthritis - Gouty arthritis- "Gout" - Inflammation of joints caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals from the blood - More common in men - Usually affects the 1^st^ (big) toe - Can usually be controlled with diet - Ankylosing spondylitis - Inflammatory disease beings at sacroiliac joints and ascends up the vertebral column - Ankylosing= fusion - More common in men between 20-40 Chapter 10 - 3 Muscle types - Skeletal muscle - Connected to skeleton by tendons - Moves bones - Multi-nucleated - Striated - Voluntary - Cardiac muscle - Found in heart to pump blood - Uninucleate - Striated - Has intercalated discs connecting each cell to the next - Involuntary - Smooth/Visceral muscle - Found in hollow organs - Functions vary based on organ - Uninucleate - NO striations - Involuntary - Skeletal muscle wrappings - Fascia-\> Epimysium \[around entire skeletal muscle\] -\> Fascicles found inside \[each fascicle surrounded by perimysium\] -\> Muscle fibers/cells found inside \[each fiber/cell surrounded by endomysium\]-\> Myofibrils \[made up of sarcomeres\] -\> Sarcomeres made up of thin and thick filaments - Sarcolemma: muscle cell membrane - Sarcoplasm: muscle cell cytoplasm - Sarcomere: functional and contractile unit of skeletal muscle - Thick filaments contain myosin - Thin filaments contain actin, troponin and tropomyosin - During a contraction \[when sarcomere shortens\], filaments never change length, instead they slide along each other when the myosin head bind to actin binding sites on actin, causing z discs to move closer together - This can only happen when stimulated by a nerve and calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum to block off troponin and tropomyosin - Neuromuscular junction \[NMJ\] is where nerve meets a muscle - Synaptic cleft is gap between the two - Neurotransmitter found at NMJ: Acetylcholine \[ACh\] - Tetanus- summation of contractions - Unfused \[incomplete\]: some relaxation between contractions - Fused: sustained muscle contraction- no relaxation - Contractions - Isotonic- tension same/constant but muscle length changes - Concentric: shortens muscle - Eccentric: lengthens muscle - Isometric- muscle contracts but length stays same - Special movements: - Dorsiflexion - Toes/ foot extending up towards body - Plantarflexion - Toes pointing down/ standing on toes - Inversion - Feet moved medially or inward - Eversion - Feet moved outward or laterally - Supination - From hands at sides to palms facing anteriorly - Pronation - Palms moving/ facing posteriorly Chapter 11 - Origin - Attachment of muscle to stationary bone - Insertion - Attachment of muscle to moveable bone - Levers - Bones= levers, Joints= fulcrum, Muscles= effort - First class - Fulcrum between load and effort - Examples: - Atlanto-occipital joint while holding head up - Scissors - Second - Load between effort and fulcrum - Examples: - Plantarflexion - Wheel barrow - Third - Effort between fulcrum and load - Examples: - Bicep curl - Tweezers - Agonist - Prime/ main muscle mover - Antagonist - Muscle that opposes agonist - Synergist - Muscle that assists with agonist - Head Neck and Face muscles - Orbicularis oris - Muscle that surrounds mouth - Closes and protrudes mouth, as in kissing - Orbicularis oculi - Muscle that surrounds eye - Closes eye - Sternocleidomastoid \[SCM\]- CN XI - Originates on manubrium of sternum and clavicle - Inserts onto mastoid process - Muscles of mastication \[chewing\] - All innervated by the Trigeminal nerve \[CN V\] - Masseter - Temporalis - Medial pterygoid - Lateral pterygoid - Eye Muscles - Superior rectus- CN III - Moves eyeballs superiorly - Inferior rectus- CN III - Moves eyeballs inferiorly - Medial rectus- CN III - Moves eyeballs medially \[adducts eyeballs\] - Lateral rectus- CN VI - Moves eyeballs laterally \[abducts eyeballs\] - Superior oblique- CN IV - Inferior oblique- CN III - Breathing muscles - Diaphragm - Largest/main muscle for breathing - Separates thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities - Contracts and flattens during inhalation- relaxes and rounds out during exhalation - Innervated by phrenic nerve - External intercostals - Contracts and Elevates ribs \[expands rib cage\] for inhalation - Internal intercostals - Contracts and brings rib cage back to normal during forced exhalation - Pectoral girdle muscles - Serratus anterior - Abducts scapula and rotates it inward - Innervated by long thoracic nerve - Damage to this nerve or muscle leads to "winging" of scapula - Trapezius - Largest upper back muscle - Innervated by accessory nerve \[CN XI\] - Rotator cuff muscle - Supraspinatus - Abducts arm - Infraspinatus - Lateral rotation of shoulder - Teres MINOR - Lateral rotation of shoulder - Subscapularis - Medial rotation of shoulder - Chest/ Shoulder/ Arm/ Forearm muscles - Latissimus dorsi - Adducts, medially rotates and extends shoulder - "getting arrested muscle" - Teres major - Actions same as latissimus dorsi - Deltoid - "big shoulder muscle" - Abducts shoulder/arm - Innervated by axillary nerve - Erector spinae group of neck/back - "I Like Spines" - Iliocostalis - Longissimus - Spinalis - Transversospinales group - "Semi Muscles Rock" - Semispinalis - Multifidus - Rotatores - Iliopsoas -- strongest hip flexor - Is made up of two muscles: - Iliacus - Psoas major - Deep lateral rotators of hip \[P GO GO Q\] - Piriformis - Gemellus superior - Obturator internus - Gemellus inferior - Obturator externus - Quadratus femoris - Sartorius - Longest muscle in body - Origin: ASIS - Innervated by femoral nerve - Quadricep muscles: - On anterior side of thigh and innervated by femoral nerve - Rectus femoris - Vastus medialis - Vastus lateralis - Vastus intermedius - Hamstring muscles: - On posterior sided of thigh and innervated by parts of sciatic nerve - Biceps femoris - Semitendinosus - Semimembranosus - Gastrocnemius - Medial and lateral heads - Inserts onto calcaneal \[achilles\] tendon - Plantarflexion - Soleus - Inserts onto calcaneal \[achilles\] tendon - Plantarflexion of foot - Plantaris - Inserts onto calcaneal \[achilles\] tendon - Plantarflexion of foot - Plantar fasciitis - Painful heel condition from chronic irritation of plantar aponeurosis at calcaneus Chapter 12 Nervous system - Two types of cells: - Neurons -- nerve cells- electrically excitable- send nerve impulses \[action potentials\] - Neuroglia- support cells - Sensory \[afferent\] neurons- part of PNS and send impulses to brain and spinal cord - Motor \[efferent\] neurons- part of PNS and send impulses away from brain and spinal cord and to muscles and glands - Interneurons- part of CNS and send impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons - Central nervous system \[CNS\] - Brain - Spinal cord - Neuroglia found: - Oligodendrocytes- create myelin in CNS- similar to schwann cells in PNS - Astrocytes- involved in blood brain barrier - Ependymal cells- create CSF - Microglial cells- eat debris - Peripheral nervous system \[PNS\] - ANS- Autonomic nervous system - Sympathetic division - Fight or flight - Parasympathetic division - Rest and digest - SNS- Somatic nervous system - All nerves - Neuroglia: - Schwann cells- create myelin in PNS - Satellite- maintain environment - Action potentials allow communication over short and long distances - Graded potentials allow communication over short distances only - Resting phase of action potential= -75mV - More negative inside than outside - Threshold= -55mV - Depolarization phase: reduction in membrane potential- less negative inside cell- action potential occurs with depolarization= +30mV - Repolarization: bringing back to resting - Parts of neuron: - Dendrites: collect electrical signals - Cell body: integrates incoming signals and generates outgoing signal to axon - Axon: passes signals to dendrites of the next neuron or effector cell - Saltatory conduction - More myelinated neurons - Much faster that continuous - Continuous conduction - Unmyelinated neurons - Know MS, Depression, Parkinson's and Epilepsy Chapter 13 - Spinal cord - Extends from brainstem to L1/L2 - Know meninges: dura, arachnoid, pia mater - 31 spinal nerves - Dermatomes - Segments of skin supplied by spinal nerves that carry somatic sensory nerve impulses to brain - Cervical plexus - C1-C4 - Phrenic nerve- innervates diaphragm - Brachial plexus - C5-T1 - Branches: musculocutaneous, axillary, radial, median, ulnar nerves - Lumbar plexus - T12-L5 - Femoral and obturator nerves - Sacral plexus - L4-S4 - Sciatic nerve - White matter conducts nerve impulses to and from brain - Gray matter receives and processes incoming and outgoing information - Reflexes - Know stretch, flexor \[withdrawal\], and crossed extensor - Shingles - Herpes zoster- runs along dermatome \[usually thoracic\] - Blood brain barrier - CSF - Liquid protecting brain and spinal cord - Flows from lateral ventricles -\> 3^rd^ ventricle -\> 4^th^ ventricle -\> subarachnoid space -\> blood - Brainstem- midbrain, pons & medulla oblongata - Pons- pneumotaxic and apneustic breathing centers - Medulla oblongata- heart rate, respiratory rate, vasoconstriction - Cerebellum- posture, balance and coordination - Diencephalon- epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus \[major regulator of homeostasis\] - Cranial nerves: - I -- olfactory- sensory- smell - II- optic- sensory- vision - III- oculomotor- motor- 4 out of 6 eye muscles \[medial rectus, superior rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique\] - IV- trochlear- motor- superior oblique of eye - V- trigeminal- both sensory & motor- sensation to face; innervates muscles of mastication - VI- abducens- motor- lateral rectus of eye - VII- facial- both- taste to anterior 2/3^rd^ of tongue; facial expressions - VIII- vestibulocochlear- sensory- hearing & balance - IX- glossopharyngeal- both- taste to posterior 1/3^rd^ tongue; swallowing - X- vagus- both- taste from epiglottis; swallowing and digestion - XI- accessory- motor- SCM & trapezius - XII- hypoglossal- motor- tongue; swallowing - CVA vs TIA - Alheimer's Chapter 15 - Preganglionic neuron vs postganglionic neuron - Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic nervous system- know general examples - Sympathetic - Fight or flight response - Cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in the lateral horns of the gray matter of T12- L2/3 segments - Parasympathetic - "Rest & digest" - Cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in the nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X, in the brain stem and in lateral gray matter of S2--S4 segments of spinal cord - Cholinergic vs Adrenergic receptors Chapter 16 - Sensation vs Perception - General vs Special senses - Free nerve endings vs encapsulated - Deep vs Visceral pain - Know picture of Somatic sensations (Slide 16)- pain in the highlighted areas are from the organ it has written - Proprioception - Know difference between muscle spindles and deep tendon organs - 1^st^, 2^nd^ and 3^rd^ order neurons - Know which pathways are sensory vs motor- will not ask specifics about each one\* - Note that many\* (not all) of the somatic sensory pathways start with "Spino- " - Many\* (not all) of the somatic motor pathways end in "-spinal" - Know functions of cerebellum - Understand Parkinson's Chapter 17 - Olfaction/ Smell - Chemical sense - CN I - Receptors in olfactory epithelium - Gustation/ Taste - 5 primary senses - Sour, sweet, bitter, salty, umami - Chemical sense - Taste buds are found in papillae and contain receptors for sensation of taste - 3 types of papillae that CONTAIN taste buds: vallate, fungiform, & foliate - Filiform papillae have tactile receptors but no taste buds - CN VII, IX, & X - Vision - Know pathway for tears - Lacrimal glands -\> lacrimal ducts -\> (lacrimal puncta)-\> lacrimal canaliculi-\> lacrimal sac-\> nasolacrimal ducts into nasal cavity - 6 extrinsic eye muscles (should know them from cranial nerve chapter) - Iris- colored part of eye - Optic nerve exits eye at optic disc (blind spot) - Retina contains photoreceptors: rods for dim light & cones for color - Know how light passes through - Cornea-\> Anterior chamber-\> Pupil-\> Posterior chamber-\> Lens-\> Vitreous humor-\> Retina - Emmetropia- normal vision - Hypertropia- farsightedness - Can see far objects more clearly, but not up close - Myopia- nearsightedness - Can see objects clearly up close, but not far away - Astigmatism - Visual pathway - Optic nerve (CN II)-\> Optic chiasm-\> Optic tract-\> Lateral geniculate nucleus-\> Optic radiation-\> Primary visual cortex - Hearing - Sensory receptors in ear transmit sound vibrations into electrical signals - 3 parts of ear: external, middle, and internal - Know what is found in each - Eyes and ears develop 22 days after fertilization - Know difference between cataracts and glaucoma