PSYCH 248 Final Part 1
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Questions and Answers

What does a paradigm shift refer to?

  • A minor change in perspective
  • A major change in perspective or underlying assumptions (correct)
  • A temporary alteration in behavior
  • A shift in physical location

The cognitive revolution focused on understanding behavior solely through observable actions.

False (B)

What was demonstrated by Cherry's dichotic listening task regarding selective attention?

Subjects could only repeat the message they were attending to.

Broadbent's filter model includes three main components: Input, Filter, and ______.

<p>Detector</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle suggests that similar things tend to be grouped together?

<p>Similarity Principle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of Broadbent's Filter Model with their functions:

<p>Input = Initial sensory reception Filter = Selects attended information Detector = Processes information for higher-level characteristics Memory = Stores information for later retrieval</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the concept of the Oblique Effect, vertical and horizontal lines are more difficult to perceive than lines of other orientations.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the Cocktail Party Effect?

<p>The ability to focus on one conversation in a crowded setting (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for expectations about how shadows will form on objects due to the assumption that light comes from above?

<p>Light From Above Assumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles?

<p>When the action potential reaches the end of the axon (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Action potentials vary in size depending on the intensity of the stimulus.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The characteristics typically associated with different types of scenes are known as __________.

<p>Semantic Regularities</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of human cognition, what parallel is drawn with early computers regarding information processing?

<p>Both process information in stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are mirror neurons and what is their function?

<p>Neurons that fire when performing an action and when observing that action in others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Palmer's study, subjects were faster to identify objects that were __________ with their expectations for each room.

<p>consistent (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Unattended information in Broadbent's Filter Model is fully processed and stored in memory.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bayesian Inference suggests that our conclusions are affected only by the raw data available.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Feature detectors respond to specific low-level stimulus properties, such as ____ and ____ lines.

<p>horizontal, vertical</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) primarily measure?

<p>Brain activity related to oxygen consumption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms with their corresponding descriptions:

<p>Action Potentials = All or nothing electrical impulses for signaling Neurotransmitters = Chemicals that affect receiving neuron signals Feature Detectors = Neurons responding to specific stimuli properties Experience Dependent Plasticity = Development based on environmental exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the processes to their definitions:

<p>Similarity Principle = Grouping similar items together Oblique Effect = Easier perception of vertical and horizontal lines Light From Above Assumption = Expectation of shadows based on light source Bayesian Inference = Combining prior knowledge with raw data</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Extrastriate Body Area (EBA) is responsible for processing auditory stimuli.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect did the selective raising of kittens in horizontal or vertical tubes have on their perception?

<p>They lost the ability to perceive lines of their non-exposed orientation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What area of the brain responds specifically to places?

<p>Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the built-in mechanisms that explain perception known as?

<p>Gestalt laws of organization</p> Signup and view all the answers

The __________ determines the presence of coordinated activity across different parts of the brain to achieve complex behaviors.

<p>Distributed Representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hierarchy processing involves perceiving objects from lower to higher complexity.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following brain areas with their primary response:

<p>FFA = Perception of faces PPA = Perception of places EBA = Processing body images Motor Cortex = Executing movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to feature detectors that do not receive relevant stimuli during development?

<p>They do not develop.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What method was used in Huth's study to analyze neural activity?

<p>Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Damage to the PPA can still allow for intact object identification.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of signal does fMRI detect to infer brain activity?

<p>Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) signal</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of coding involves a single neuron representing one specific stimulus?

<p>Specificity Coding (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Double dissociations provide evidence for localization of function in the brain.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Broca's Area in the brain?

<p>language production</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _______ Area is responsible for language comprehension.

<p>Wernicke's</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of neural coding with their definitions:

<p>Specificity Coding = Single neuron codes for one representation Population Coding = Pattern of firing from many neurons Sparse Coding = Firing pattern from a small group of neurons Contagious Behaviours = Behaviours that spread among individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is related to abnormalities in the Fusiform Face Area?

<p>Prosopagnosia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Population coding suggests that a single neuron responds to many different stimuli.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Taso's study in cognitive neuroscience?

<p>It measured the response of individual neurons and found an area analogous to the human Fusiform Face Area.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of spatial attention?

<p>Attending to specific locations in space (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The same-object advantage shows that reaction times are faster when a target appears on a different rectangle than the cue.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to cognitive resources during automatization?

<p>Cognitive resources are freed up, allowing attention to be allocated to other tasks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Using a cell phone while driving increases the risk of an accident by ____ times.

<p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the attention-related concepts with their descriptions:

<p>Spatial Attention = Focus on specific locations in space Same-Object Advantage = Faster reactions when target and cue are on the same object Automation = Performing tasks with little cognitive effort Divided Attention = Managing attention across multiple tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does attentional spotlight metaphor refer to?

<p>The idea that attention can be directed like a spotlight (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Research has shown that attention can influence physiological responses in the visual cortex.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main task in the study that looked at divided attention?

<p>Subjects had to remember targets while monitoring rapidly presented letter arrays.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Paradigm Shift

A major change in perspective, approach, or underlying assumptions. It's like switching from a horse-drawn carriage to a car - a whole new way of thinking about transportation.

Cognitive Revolution

A movement in psychology that moved away from focusing on observable behaviors (behaviorism) and towards studying the mind's internal processes. It's like looking inside a computer to understand how it works.

Information-Processing Approach

Studying the mind using insights gleaned from digital computers. It's like using computer science to understand how our brains process information.

Dichotic Listening Task

A classic experiment where participants listen to two different messages presented to each ear simultaneously, and are instructed to focus on one. It's like trying to have two conversations at once, but only paying attention to one.

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Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one conversation or stimulus while filtering out others. It's like being able to focus on one voice in a crowded room.

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Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention

A model that explains selective attention, suggesting that unattended information is filtered out early in processing. It's like a filter letting only selected information through.

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Sensory Memory

A brief storage system that holds incoming information. It's like a temporary holding area before processing begins.

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Detector

A stage in the filter model that processes attended information to determine its meaning. It's like interpreting the information that passed through the filter.

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Synaptic Vesicles

Tiny sacs at the end of a neuron that store and release neurotransmitters across the synapse.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons by crossing the synapse and binding to receptors on the receiving neuron.

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Action Potential

A rapid electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron, enabling communication within the nervous system.

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What does the frequency of action potentials represent?

The intensity of a stimulus. A higher frequency indicates a stronger or more intense stimulus.

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Feature Detectors

Specialized neurons in the brain that respond to specific, basic features of a stimulus.

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Experience-Dependent Plasticity

The ability of the brain to reorganize itself in response to experience.

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Hierarchical Processing

The brain processes information from simple to complex, starting with basic features and building up to understanding objects.

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Mirror Neurons

Specialized neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else performing the same action.

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Tool Use

The ability to use objects for a purpose beyond their original function, providing an evolutionary advantage.

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Empathy

The capacity to understand and share the feelings of others, allowing for strategic judgments in social situations.

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Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have different thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives, which impacts social interactions.

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Specificity Coding

A neural representation where a single neuron is dedicated to coding a specific stimulus.

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Population Coding

A neural representation where multiple neurons work together to encode an object, with varying activity levels.

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Sparse Coding

A neural representation where a small group of neurons are active, while most remain silent, to encode a stimulus.

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Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe responsible for language production.

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Wernicke's Area

An area in the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension.

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FFA Stimulation

Electrically stimulating the fusiform face area (FFA) can distort how a person perceives faces.

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MRI vs. fMRI

MRI creates static anatomical images, while fMRI measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygen levels.

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BOLD Signal

The Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent signal, measured by fMRI, reflects changes in brain activity by detecting variations in blood oxygen.

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Voxel

3D pixels superimposed on a brain scan, used to analyze fMRI data and estimate activity in specific brain regions.

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Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)

A brain region involved in processing and recognizing places, both indoor and outdoor.

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Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)

A brain region specialized in recognizing images of bodies and body parts.

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Distributed Representation

This concept explains that complex actions and behaviors are achieved through coordinated activity across multiple brain regions.

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Example: Playing the Violin

playing the violin requires coordination across the premotor cortex (planning movement) and the motor cortex (executing movement).

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Oblique Effect

We perceive vertical and horizontal lines more easily than lines at other angles. This is because these orientations are common in our environment, leading to more specialized feature detectors for them.

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Light-from-Above Assumption

We naturally assume light comes from above, influencing how we interpret shadows on objects. This assumption helps us infer the shape and orientation of objects.

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Semantic Regularities

These are the characteristics typically associated with different types of scenes, often related to actions or activities commonly performed in those scenes.

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Scene Schema

Our knowledge of what a given scene usually contains. This influences how we interpret and perceive objects within that scene.

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Top-Down Processing

Perception influenced by our prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences. It's like taking a guess based on previous information.

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Bayesian Inference

Estimating the probability of an outcome based on our prior expectations and the current evidence. It's like weighing past knowledge and new information.

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Gestalt Laws of Organization

These are innate principles that help us group perceptual elements together, forming meaningful wholes. They're like built-in rules for seeing the world.

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Experience's Role in Perception

While we have innate perceptual mechanisms, experience can also shape how we perceive the world, sometimes reinforcing or overriding these innate principles.

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Spatial Attention

Focusing your mental resources on specific locations in space.

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Object-Based Attention

Our attention is directed to specific objects, even if they are visually separated.

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Same-Object Advantage

Faster reaction times when a target appears in the same location as a cue, even if objects are distant.

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Automatization

With practice, tasks become automatic, requiring less conscious effort.

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Divided Attention

Successfully attending to multiple tasks simultaneously

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Cell Phone Use While Driving

Increases the risk of accidents significantly by distracting our attention.

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Attention and Physiological Responding

Our attentional focus on certain parts of space influences the activation patterns of specific brain regions.

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Covert Attention

Directing attention without moving physical eyes.

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Study Notes

Lecture 1 - Introduction

  • A key challenge in cognitive psychology is operationalizing abstract concepts into measurable observations.
  • This is necessary because mental processes cannot be directly measured.
  • Researchers infer mental processes from observable behaviors, such as reaction time and accuracy.
  • An example given is determining the temperature of an oven.

Lecture 2 - Introduction Continued

  • Watson identified problems with previous psychological approaches, namely reliability (consistency) and validity (whether the measures truly capture what they intend to measure) of results.
  • Watson proposed Behaviorism as an approach focused on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes.
  • Behaviorist viewed the mind as an unobservable "black box", thus focusing on measurable behaviours.
  • Watson and Rayner's Little Albert experiment demonstrated classical conditioning.
  • Skinner contributed to operant conditioning, emphasizing the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior.

Lecture 3 - Cognitive Neuroscience

  • Cognitive Neuroscience investigates the physical basis of cognition.
  • The nervous system and its components are considered.
  • Early conceptions of neurons viewed the nervous system as a continuous "net."
  • Golgi staining demonstrated individual neurons, contradicting the nerve net idea.
  • Neurons consist of cell bodies, dendrites, and axons.
  • Neurons communicate using electrical signals and neurotransmitters in synapses.
  • Action potentials are all-or-nothing electrical signals that neurons use to communicate with each other.

Lecture 4 - Cognitive Neuroscience Continued

  • Localization of Function suggests that particular brain areas are responsible for specific cognitive functions.
  • Damage to an area can result in predictable functional deficits.
  • The cerebral cortex is responsible for most cognitive functions.
  • Neuropsychology studies the effects of brain damage on behavior to understand localization of function.
  • Specific brain regions, such as Broca's and Wernicke's areas, are important for language functions as shown through neuropsychological studies .
  • Neuroimaging techniques, like MRI and fMRI, allow for the study of the brain's activity.

Lecture 5 - Cognitive Neuroscience Continued

  • Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses radioactive tracers to map brain activity.
  • Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) can modulate brain activity to observe causal effects on behavior, creating temporary impairments to understand function.
  • Neural networks are highly interconnected pathways for information flow in the brain.
  • These networks are dynamic as their structures in pathways can change over time through experiences.
  • Different regions of the brain frequently interact and work together to complete tasks.

Lecture 6 - Perception

  • Perception is the experience resulting from sensory stimulation.
  • Perception actively constructs meaningful experiences from the data it receives.
  • Prior experience, expectations, and biases influence perception.
  • The complexities of perceiving the world, such as the inverse projection problem, are described and discussed.

Lecture 7 - Perception Continued

  • The conceptions of object perception are discussed including theories of unconscious inference, Gestalt principles, and the role of experience-dependent plasticity.
  • Unconscious inferences, involving prior knowledge, heavily influence perceptual experience.
  • The importance of perceiving in a similar way to how our brain has developed is important in how we will recognize similar things in the future from different perspectives.

Lecture 8 - Perception Continued

  • Comparing various approaches to perception, such as unconscious inference and Gestalt principles, by emphasizing the intertwined roles of experience, innate mechanisms, and cognitive processes.
  • The significance of top-down processing, a concept that includes using prior knowledge to influence how we process data to interpret the world around us , to shape our understanding is highlighted in this lecture.

Lecture 9 - Attention

  • Attention is the process of focusing on specific information or locations in our environment.
  • Attention is important because we are constantly bombarded with sensory information
  • Different forms of attention are described, including selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention.

Lecture 10 - Attention Continued

  • Eye-tracking, a technique for monitoring overt attention, and measuring various aspects of attention, such as eye movements, fixation durations, and saccades are highlighted .
  • These techniques are commonly used to investigate perceptual processes in the context of visual search and tasks demanding focused attention.

Lecture 11 - Attention Continued

  • The improvements in the speed of reaction time when the attention is in the right area of space, highlights attentional mechanisms.
  • The concept of spatial attention, emphasizing attention as a spotlight-like mechanism directing focus to specific locations in space, is discussed.
  • The interplay between attention and action, through the analysis of how cues and targets can inform reaction times and responses in different situations, is explored.

Other info

  • Automation: describes the ability to perform tasks automatically via practice, thus freeing up cognitive resources.
  • Cell phones use examples for how automation can be negatively affected by cognitive resources

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