110 Questions
Who emphasized the importance of bodily sensations for emotions?
James
What were the three basic dimensions of emotions recognized by Wilhelm Wundt?
Pleasure-displeasure, tension-relaxation, and arousal-calmness
When did research on emotions become acceptable and flourished again?
In the 1980s
Who created a theory of emotions that recognized three basic dimensions?
Wilhelm Wundt
What did subsequent research show about peripheral physiological states and emotional experiences?
They are rare and not necessary for emotional experiences
During which period did research on emotions cease?
In the 1970s
What is affect?
A term encompassing both emotions and moods
How were affects classified in the 1980s?
Based on valence and activation dimensions
What did an influential article integrate into a single model?
Valence and activation as the primary dimensions
What is favored by affect researchers according to the text?
The valence-activation model
What does some research suggest about activation systems?
'Energetic arousal' and 'tense arousal' may indicate a three-dimensional model of affect
'Euphoria' requires what state of activation according to the text?
'A high state of activation'
What does energetic arousal show according to the text?
A circadian rhythm, increasing after waking up and decreasing over the day.
What does tense arousal respond to according to the text?
Stressful situations.
According to emotion researchers, what can't emotions be reduced to?
Valence and activation dimensions.
What do basic emotions widely considered include?
Happiness, sadness, fear/anxiety, and anger.
What do basic emotions reflect according to the text?
Specific responses to events and are associated with distinct facial expressions.
What does understanding affect involve according to the text?
Considering valence, activation, basic emotions, associated action tendencies, and facial expressions.
What does a meta-analysis suggest about the relationship between extraversion and positive affect?
A typical correlation of r ~.3
What did one study in Germany fail to find after controlling for response styles?
Any notable relationship between extraversion and positive affect
What did 40 years of research suggest about the relationship between extraversion and individuals' positive mood states?
A small to moderate relationship that is consistent across situations
What are the most pleasurable activities based on a research study?
Sex, exercising, and spiritual activities
What is the reason for the likely small to moderate influence of extraversion on individuals' positive affect?
Feelings are also influenced by events and life-circumstances
What does the text suggest about introverts' ability to feel happy?
Even introverts can feel happy, especially if they have a close and reliable network of friends
What did Lykken & Tellegen emphasize regarding the strength of the relationship between extraversion and positive affect?
It is important to quantify the strength of the relationship to avoid the impression that individuals' happiness is genetically determined at conception
What did one way of studying the influence of situations on positive affect involve according to the text?
Asking participants to recall situations on the previous day and remember how they felt during those situations
What does the text suggest about the support for the idea that extraverts react more strongly to positive stimuli?
There is relatively little support for this idea according to the text
What did Watson and Tellgen propose to change the names of their dimensions to in 1999?
Positive Activation and Negative Activation
What is considered to be high PA and low NA according to the PA-NA model?
Happiness
What are the basic dimensions of momentary states supposed to correspond to?
Neuroticism and Extraversion
What is often misunderstood to imply that they are independent experiences according to the text?
Happiness and sadness
"High PA is limited to being lively and excited" according to the text. What state is considered unrelated to high PA?
"A pleasant state of relaxation"
"Instead it is supposed to reflect very low levels of NA." What does 'it' refer to in this context?
"A pleasant state of relaxation"
What might have been a better solution according to the text?
"To use the terms energetic arousal and tense arousal"
What did personality psychologists favor because it seemed to align well with their findings?
"The PA-NA model"
What did neuroticism relate to according to personality psychology findings?
Experiences of negative affects
What did extraversion relate to according to personality psychology findings?
Positive affect
What does the affect-level model suggest about extraverts and positive emotions?
Extraverts are more cheerful due to biological processes, such as serotonin levels
What is a facet of extraversion indicating a strong link between extraversion and positive affective experiences?
Dispositional cheerfulness
What does the empirical evidence challenge according to the text?
Affect reactivity model
What does the person-situation correlation theory suggest about extraverts and positive feelings?
Extraverts experience more positive feelings due to spending more time in social situations
What does the affect reactivity model propose about how extraverts influence affective experiences?
Extraverts respond more intensely to rewarding situations
What does neuroticism associate with according to the text?
Tense arousal and easily stressing out
What does the person-situation correlation theory suggest about extraverts and negative emotions?
Extraverts experience fewer negative emotions because they spend more time in social situations.
What is challenged by empirical evidence according to the text?
Affect reactivity model
What does dispositional cheerfulness indicate according to the text?
A strong link between extraversion and positive affective experiences.
What does the affect-level model propose about how extraversion influences affective experiences?
Extraverts are more cheerful due to biological processes, such as serotonin levels.
What is one main problem with defining a happy life as a life with the maximum amount of pleasure and the minimum amount of displeasure?
It does not give individuals a choice about their lives
How do modern theories of well-being define well-being?
As a comparison between individuals' actual lives and their freely chosen ideal lives
What approach to measuring well-being and happiness goes back to old philosophical theories of well-being?
Affective experiences approach
What do researchers ask participants to evaluate in order to measure subjective well-being?
Their lives
What did personality psychologists need valid measures of in order to examine why some individuals are happier with their lives than others?
Happiness or subjective well-being
What is one approach to measuring well-being and happiness that philosophers have debated about?
Defining a happy life as a life with the maximum amount of pleasure and the minimum amount of displeasure
What do modern theories of well-being aim to avoid, which was identified as a problem with an older definition?
Making individuals slaves to their emotions
What is one reason why there is variation in how happy individuals are, according to the text?
Humans are different from each other in their dispositions and values
What do many contemporary philosophers disagree about regarding defining a happy life?
Whether well-being can be reduced to affective experiences
What do modern theories of well-being define as a comparison between, according to the text?
Individuals' actual lives and their freely chosen ideal lives
What did Finley and Schmeichel find about neuroticism as a predictor of responses to neutral and negative pictures?
Neuroticism was an equally weak predictor of responses to neutral and negative pictures
What did Leger, Charles, Turiano, & Almeida's study show about neuroticism?
Neuroticism predicted stronger negative feelings in response to stressful daily events
What does the affect-reactivity model propose about neuroticism?
It proposes that neuroticism is a disposition to respond more strongly to negative and stressful situations
What is the empirical question regarding neuroticism and negative affect?
How it is related to negative feelings
What did the study by Finley and Schmeichel find about the relationship between neuroticism and responses to emotional pictures?
-.1
What did the study with real-life stressors show about neuroticism?
It predicted stronger negative feelings in response to stressful daily events
What is the relationship between neuroticism and negative affects?
Neuroticism is strongly linked to negative affects
What may benefit neurotic individuals experiencing severe stress?
Mood regulation techniques
What poses a challenge for evolutionary theories of personality?
High levels of neuroticism
Why may high levels of neuroticism have been more adaptive in past environments with more dangers?
Because it increases vigilance and cautiousness
What does the trait of Affect Intensity measure?
Affect reactivity
What does well-being often refer to?
A combination of physical, mental, and social health
What influences emotions according to the text?
Appraisals of events and importance attached to goals
What varies among individuals according to the text?
Affect intensity
What is subjective well-being based on according to the text?
Individual ideas for their lives
What does understanding individual differences in affective experiences involve according to the text?
Both genetic predispositions and situational factors
What do twin studies suggest about the variance in happiness?
50% of the variance in individual differences in well-being is heritable and stable
Which personality traits strongly influence well-being according to the text?
Neuroticism and extraversion
What does the affect-as-mediator model explain?
How personality traits influence well-being through affective experiences
What does longitudinal studies suggest about heritability of individual differences in well-being?
About 50% of the variance in individual differences in well-being is heritable and stable
What does the correlation between hedonic balance and well-being indicate?
1
What did Suh, Diener, Oishi, and Triandis (1998) propose regarding the importance of affect for well-being?
Affect for well-being varies across cultures
What did Schimmack et al. (2002) suggest regarding the relationship between culture and personality in influencing life-satisfaction?
Culture should moderate the relationship between personality and life-satisfaction
What did the study with student samples from the US, Germany, Japan, Mexico, and Ghana support?
The influence of extraversion and neuroticism on well-being depends on culture
What does the third figure combining the mediator and moderator models predict?
The influence of extraversion and neuroticism on well-being depends on culture
What was found about hedonic balance as a predictor of life-satisfaction in individualistic cultures versus collectivistic cultures?
It was a stronger predictor in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures
What is the main implication of the mediator model?
Extraversion and neuroticism influence well-being through influencing hedonic balance
What is the correlation between median household income and average life-satisfaction of citizens?
r = .85
Which nation barely makes it into the top 20 happiest nations according to the text?
United States
What is a better measure of wealth according to the text?
Households median income
What does the World Happiness Report 2020 provide for over 150 nations?
Survey and report on the happiness of citizens
What does the strong correlation between the wealth of nations and citizens well-being imply according to the text?
"Don't let anybody tell you that money doesn't buy happiness"
"Some nominally wealthy nations like Singapore do not have very happy citizens because economic measures of wealth can be distorted by" what according to the text?
"Trade and income distribution"
What does the World Happiness Report 2020 provide regarding national averages?
Happiness rankings
What does the correlation between national differences in wealth and individuals' well-being account for according to the text?
Less than 50% of the variance in individuals' well-being.
What is used to create a world map of happiness according to the text?
The data from surveys on life-satisfaction.
What do social scientists receive major funding for according to the text?
Research on happiness and well-being.
Which facet of neuroticism makes a unique contribution to the prediction of life-satisfaction?
Depression
Which facet of extraversion is most directly related to affective experiences?
Cheerfulness
Why are anger and anxiety correlated with life-satisfaction according to the text?
They share variance with sadness
What is one possible explanation for why anger and anxiety are correlated with life-satisfaction?
They signal dangers or blocks in goal pursuit
What does sadness signal according to the text?
A positive outcome was not reached or something good was lost
What is the relevance of higher activity levels, assertiveness, or a need for excitement in relation to well-being according to the text?
Not necessarily make a life better
What does the text suggest about test anxiety and its direct link to well-being?
It may be good news that anxiety is not directly linked to well-being
What did an influential article by Brickman, Coates, and Janoff-Bulman in 1978 compare?
Well-being of lottery winners, average Americans, and paraplegics
What did longitudinal studies with large representative samples confirm about the effects of certain life events on well-being?
Winning the lottery has positive effects, and disability, divorce, widowhood, and unemployment can have negative effects on well-being that last for years.
What did the study by Brickman, Coates, and Janoff-Bulman in 1978 reveal about the well-being of lottery winners compared to average Americans and paraplegics?
There was no notable difference between lottery winners and average Americans.
What did longitudinal studies reveal about the assumption that individuals quickly get used to changes in their lives?
There is no evidence that we simply get used to negative life-circumstances.
What was one major problem with the study by Brickman, Coates, and Janoff-Bulman in 1978?
The small sample size made the result rather uninformative.
'Contrary to this claim' refers to which idea in the text?
The misrepresentation of the study's results regarding happiness levels of different groups
What does the New York Times article reveal about Philip Brickman?
He suffered from depressive episodes and experienced a major depressive episode after his wife divorced him.
What did longitudinal studies confirm about the effects of certain life events on well-being?
Winning the lottery has positive effects, and disability, divorce, widowhood, and unemployment can have negative effects on well-being that last for years.
What did longitudinal studies reveal about getting used to changes in life circumstances?
There is no evidence that we simply get used to negative life-circumstances.
Study Notes
Understanding Affect and Emotions
- Affect is a broader term that encompasses both emotions and moods.
- Two models emerged in the 1980s to classify affects: one based on valence and activation dimensions, and the other based on positive and negative affects.
- An influential article integrated the two models into a single model, showing valence and activation as the primary dimensions.
- Affect researchers disagreed on the basic dimensions that create the two-dimensional structure, similar to the concept of a color wheel.
- The valence-activation model is favored by affect researchers, suggesting that some affects are basic and others are mixtures of basic affects.
- Basic affects like happiness can occur with different levels of activation, while euphoria requires a high state of activation.
- Some research suggests two, if not more, activation systems called energetic arousal and tense arousal, which may indicate a three-dimensional model of affect.
- Energetic arousal shows a circadian rhythm, increasing after waking up and decreasing over the day, while tense arousal responds to stressful situations.
- Emotions cannot be reduced to valence and activation dimensions, as emotion researchers have identified basic emotions with specific facial expressions and associated action tendencies.
- The basic emotions widely considered include happiness, sadness, fear/anxiety, and anger.
- These basic emotions reflect specific responses to events and are associated with distinct facial expressions.
- Understanding affect and emotions involves considering valence, activation, basic emotions, and their associated action tendencies and facial expressions.
Extraversion and Affective Experiences
- Extraversion is linked to higher levels of energetic arousal and activity
- Neuroticism is associated with tense arousal and easily stressing out
- Positive and negative affects are not independent, individuals experiencing more positive emotions tend to experience fewer negative emotions
- Dispositional cheerfulness is a facet of extraversion, indicating a strong link between extraversion and positive affective experiences
- Two competing models explaining how extraversion influences affective experiences: affect-level model and affect reactivity model
- Affect-level model suggests that extraverts are more cheerful due to biological processes, such as serotonin levels
- Affect reactivity model proposes that extraverts respond more intensely to rewarding situations
- Empirical evidence challenges the affect reactivity model, showing that extraverts do not experience more positive feelings because they respond more strongly to positive stimuli
- Person-situation correlation theory suggests that extraverts experience more positive feelings due to spending more time in social situations
- A direct link from extraversion to positive affects is also likely, as predicted by the affect-level model
- Positive affect shows high cross-situational consistency, supporting the affect-level model
- Extraversion predicts higher positive affect over long time-intervals
Neuroticism, Emotional Intensity, and Well-Being
- Neuroticism is linked to individuals' levels of negative affects and predicts negative feelings over long periods of time
- The relationship between neuroticism and negative affects is stronger than the relationship between extraversion and positive affects
- Neurotic individuals experiencing severe stress may benefit from psychotherapy, mood regulation techniques, or medical interventions
- The stable and heritable disposition of neuroticism poses a challenge for evolutionary theories of personality
- High levels of neuroticism may have been more adaptive in past environments with more dangers
- Neuroticism may not have been selected against due to its potential lack of impact on survival or reproduction
- There are no reliable findings that neuroticism has positive effects on health
- The acceptance of neuroticism as a part of oneself is proposed as a way to deal with high neuroticism
- The trait of Affect Intensity, which measures affect reactivity, is also important in understanding individual differences in affective experiences
- Emotions are elicited by appraisals of events with regards to our well-being and are influenced by the importance attached to goals
- Emotional intensity varies among individuals, with some attaching more importance to their goals and experiencing more intense pleasure and displeasure
- Well-being is often used synonymously with happiness, and subjective well-being is based on the idea that individuals can have different ideas for their lives
Factors Affecting Well-Being and Happiness
- Acculturation studies show that national differences in well-being reflect environmental and cultural factors.
- South Asian Canadians are just as happy as European Canadians and much happier than South Asians in Asia.
- Most immigrants to Canada are happier than in their home countries.
- Global citizens are aware of how their country compares to others, leading to attempts to leave less happy nations.
- Conflicts due to differences in well-being now play out on a global stage.
- Twin studies show that about 40% of the variance in happiness is explained by genetic differences.
- The shared family environment seems to play a relatively small role in adult well-being.
- Longitudinal studies suggest that about 50% of the variance in individual differences in well-being is heritable and stable.
- The Big Five personality traits, especially neuroticism and extraversion, strongly influence well-being.
- The affect-as-mediator model explains how personality traits influence well-being through affective experiences.
- The influence of personality traits on well-being is indirect, mediated by affective experiences.
- The correlation between hedonic balance and well-being is not 1, indicating that other criteria besides emotional experiences also influence well-being.
Test your knowledge of affect and well-being in psychology with this quiz. Explore the history of emotions as a prominent topic in psychology and learn about the theories of emotions proposed by Wilhelm Wundt, James, and Lange.
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