Zoology-Ethology Module 1 2024 PDF

First Semester  INTRODUCTION If you observe there is an existence of letter E in the title of Zoology. The E stands for Ethology in this course, which focuses on the behavior of animals. This is zoology, the study of animals that aims to direct more on study of their behavior in its natu...

First Semester  INTRODUCTION If you observe there is an existence of letter E in the title of Zoology. The E stands for Ethology in this course, which focuses on the behavior of animals. This is zoology, the study of animals that aims to direct more on study of their behavior in its natural habitat. While Ethology is a scientific study of animals’ behavior and how the forces of evolution have shaped them naturally to be, this course will explore on that course and its relationship with human behavior as well. The study of animal behavior is a cornerstone of psychology for several reasons. Ethology, or the study of animals in their natural environment, sheds light on how animals interact with each other and their setting, and why they behave the way they do. By studying animal behavior, humans can also learn more about their own behavior—a field known as comparative psychology. Traditionally these have been centred into two broad overlapping disciplines - ethology and psychology. Both make valuable contributions to the clear understanding of the nature of interlinking behavior.  INTRODUCTION Behaviourism as a term also describes, the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or to trained behavioural responses in a laboratory context without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity. Throughout history, different naturalists, scientist and psychologist have studied aspects of animal behaviour to better understand human behavior. Humans share planet Earth with other non-human animals, many of whom are in danger of going extinct. Learning more about animal behavior can help people conserve nature and better coexist with animals. Additionally, observations about animal behavior may provide fresh insights on why people behave the way they do, and how they can change and support coexistence for the betterment of this planet and non human species and of Man.  Think about this! Be the CHANGE You want to see … In the WORLD! We share the same SPACE.. and we share the same @ZOOLOGY - ETHOLOGY LIFE.. Zoology, branch of biology that studies the members of the animal kingdom and animal life in general. It includes both the inquiry into individual animals and their constituent parts, even to the molecular level, and the inquiry into animal populations, entire faunas, and the relationships of animals to each other, to plants, and to the nonliving environment. Though this wide range of studies results in some isolation of specialties within zoology, the conceptual integration in the contemporary study of living things that has occurred in recent years emphasizes the structural and functional unity of life rather than its diversity. In order for us to understand how all living organisms are related, they are arranged into different groups. The more features that a group of animals share, the more specific the group is called Taxonomy. Taxonomy categories are broadly categorized into seven divisions, including kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Animals are given scientific names so that people all around the world can communicate about animals, no matter what language they speak (these names are traditionally Latin words). Animals belong to a number of different groups, starting with the animal kingdom. REF: Earl Dorchester Hanson of Biology and Science in Society, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, 1982–93. Author of Animal Diversity. UCP College of Psychology Historical Background Prehistoric man’s survival as a hunter defined his relation to other animals, which were a source of food and danger. As man’s cultural heritage developed, animals were variously incorporated into man’s folklore and philosophical awareness as fellow living creatures. Domestication of animals forced man to take a systematic and measured view of animal life, especially after urbanization necessitated a constant and large supply of animal products. Study of animal life by the ancient Greeks became more rational, if not yet scientific, in the modern sense, after the cause of disease—until then thought to be demons—was postulated by Hippocrates to result from a lack of harmonious functioning of body parts. The systematic study of animals was encouraged by Aristotle’s extensive descriptions of living things, his work reflecting the Greek concept of order in nature and attributing to nature an idealized rigidity. REF: Earl Dorchester Hanson of Biology and Science in Society, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, 1982–93. Author of Animal Diversity. UCP College of Psychology In Roman times, Pliny the Elder compiled a 37-volume work called Historia Naturalis, which served as an encyclopedic collection of both myths and facts about celestial bodies, geography, animals, plants, metals, and stones. Volumes VII to XI focused on zoology, with Volume VIII dedicated to land animals, beginning with the largest—the elephant. Although Pliny’s approach was somewhat naïve by modern standards, his extensive work became highly influential and was regarded as an authoritative source for centuries. Zoology continued in the Aristotelian tradition for many centuries in the Mediterranean region, and by the Middle Ages in Europe, it had accumulated considerable folklore, superstition, and moral symbolism, which were added to otherwise objective information about animals. Gradually, much of this misinformation was sifted out: naturalists became more critical as they compared directly observed animal life in Europe with that described in ancient texts. The use of the printing press in the 15th century made possible an accurate transmission of information. Moreover, mechanistic views of life processes (i.e., that physical processes depending on cause and effect can apply to animate forms) provided a hopeful method for analyzing animal functions; for example UCP College of Psychology the mechanics of hydraulic systems were part of William Harvey’s argument for the circulation of the blood—although Harvey remained thoroughly Aristotelian in outlook. In the 18th century, zoology passed through reforms provided by both the system of nomenclature of Carolus Linnaeus and the comprehensive works on natural history by Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon; to these were added the contributions to comparative anatomy by Georges Cuvier in the early 19th century. Physiological functions, such as digestion, excretion, and respiration, were easily observed in many animals, though they were not as critically analyzed as was blood circulation. Following the introduction of the word cell in the 17th century and microscopic observation of these structures throughout the 18th century, the cell was incisively defined as the common structural unit of living things in 1839 by two Germans: Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. In the meanwhile, as the science of chemistry developed, it was inevitably extended to an analysis of animate systems. In the middle of the 18th century the French physicist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumer demonstrated that the fermenting action of stomach juices is a chemical process. UCP College of Psychology And in the mid-19th century the French physician and physiologist Claude Bernard drew upon both the cell theory and knowledge of chemistry to develop the concept of the stability of the internal bodily environment, now called homeostasis. The cell concept influenced many biological disciplines, including that of embryology, in which cells are important in determining the way in which a fertilized egg develops into a new organism. The unfolding of these events—called epigenesis by Harvey—was described by various workers, notably the German-trained comparative embryologist Karl von Baer, who was the first to observe a mammalian egg within an ovary. Another German-trained embryologist, Christian Heinrich Pander, introduced in 1817 the concept of germ, or primordial, tissue layers into embryology. In the latter part of the 19th century, improved microscopy and better staining techniques using aniline dyes, such as hematoxylin, provided further impetus to the study of internal cellular structure. UCP College of Psychology  Ethology The study of animal behavior (ethology) is largely a 20th-century phenomenon and is exclusively a zoological discipline. Only animals have nervous systems, with their implications for perception, coordination, orientation, learning, and memory. Not until the end of the 19th century did animal behavior become free from anthropocentric interests and assume an importance in its own right. The British behaviorist C. Lloyd Morgan was probably most influential with his emphasis on parsimonious explanations—i.e., that the explanation “which stands lower in the psychological scale” must be invoked first. This principle is exemplified in the American Herbert Spencer Jennings’ pioneering work in 1906 on The Behavior of Lower Organisms. The study of animal behavior now includes many diverse topics, ranging from swimming patterns of protozoans to socialization and communication among the great apes. Many disparate hypotheses have been proposed in an attempt to explain the variety of behavioral patterns found in animals. They focus on the mechanisms that stimulate courtship in reproductive behavior of such diverse  Ethology groups as spiders, crabs, and domestic fowl; and on whole life histories, starting from the special attachment of newly born ducks and goats to their actual mothers or to surrogate (substitute) mothers. The latter phenomenon, called imprinting, has been intensively studied by the Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz. Physiologically oriented behavior now receives much attention; studies range from work on conditioned reflexes to the orientation of crustaceans and the location and communication of food among bees; such diversity of material is one measure of the somewhat diffuse but exciting current state of these studies. Genetics has developed in the 20th century and now is essential to many diverse biological disciplines. The discovery of the gene as a controlling hereditary factor for all forms of life has been a major accomplishment of modern biology. There has also emerged clearer understanding of the interaction of organisms with their environment. Such ecological studies help not only to show the interdependence of the three great groups of organisms—plants, as producers; animals, as consumers; and fungi and many bacteria, as decomposers—but they also provide information essential to man’s control of the environment and, ultimately, to his survival on Earth. Closely related to this study of ecology are inquiries into animal behaviour, or ethology. Such studies are often cross disciplinary in that ecology, physiology, genetics, development, and evolution are combined as man attempts to understand why an organism behaves as it does. This approach now receives substantial attention because it seems to provide useful insight into man’s biological heritage—that is, the historical origin of man from nonhuman forms. UCP College of Psychology The emergence of animal biology has had two particular effects on classical zoology. First, and somewhat paradoxically, there has been a reduced emphasis on zoology as a distinct subject of scientific study; for example, workers think of themselves as geneticists, ecologists, or physiologists who study animal rather than plant material. They often choose a problem congenial to their intellectual tastes, regarding the organism used as important only to the extent that it provides favorable experimental material. Current emphasis is, therefore, slanted toward the solution of general biological problems; contemporary zoology thus is to a great extent the sum total of that work done by biologists pursuing research on animal material. Second, there is an increasing emphasis on a conceptual approach to the life sciences. This has resulted from the concepts that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: the cell theory; natural selection and evolution; the constancy of the internal environment; the basic similarity of genetic material in all living organisms; and the flow of matter and energy through ecosystems. UCP College of Psychology The lives of microbes, plants, and animals now are approached using theoretical models as guides rather than by following the often restricted empiricism of earlier times. This is particularly true in molecular studies, in which the integration of biology with chemistry allows the techniques and quantitative emphases of the physical sciences to be used effectively to analyze living systems. Areas Of Study Although it is still useful to recognize many disciplines in animal biology – e.g., anatomy or morphology; biochemistry and molecular biology; cell biology; developmental studies (embryology); ecology; ethology; evolution; genetics; physiology; and systematics - the research frontiers occur as often at the interfaces of two or more of these areas as within any given one. The following are their explanations: UCP College of Psychology  Anatomy morphology Descriptions of external form and internal organization are among the earliest records available regarding the systematic study of animals. Aristotle was an indefatigable collector and dissector of animals. He found differing degrees of structural complexity, which he described with regard to ways of living, habits, and body parts. Although Aristotle had no formal system of classification, it is apparent that he viewed animals as arranged from the simplest to the most complex in an ascending series. Since man was even more complex than animals and, moreover, possessed a rational faculty, he therefore occupied the highest position and a special category. This hierarchical perception of the animate world proved to be useful in every century to the present, except that in the modern view there is no such “scale of nature,” and there is change in time by evolution from the simple to the complex. After the time of Aristotle, Mediterranean science was centered at Alexandria, where the study of anatomy, particularly the central nervous system, flourished and, in fact, first became recognized as a discipline. Galen studied anatomy at  Anatomy morphology Alexandria in the 2nd century and later dissected many animals. Much later, the contributions of the Renaissance anatomist Andreas Vesalius, though made in the context of medicine, as were those of Galen, stimulated to a great extent the rise of comparative anatomy. During the latter part of the 15th century and throughout the 16th century, there was a strong tradition in anatomy; important similarities were observed in the anatomy of different animals, and many illustrated books were published to record these observations. But anatomy remained a purely descriptive science until the advent of functional considerations in which the correlation between structure and function was consciously investigated; as by French biologists Buffon and Cuvier. Cuvier cogently argued that a trained naturalist could deduce from one suitably chosen part of an animal’s body the complete set of adaptations that characterized the organism. Because it was obvious that organisms with similar parts pursue similar habits, they were placed together in a system of classification. Cuvier pursued this viewpoint, which he called the theory of correlations in a dogmatic manner and placed himself in opposition to the romantic natural  Anatomy morphology philosophers, such as the German intellectual Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who saw a tendency to ideal types in animal form. The tension between these schools of thought— adaptation as the consequence of necessary bodily functions and adaptation as an expression of a perfecting principle in nature—runs as a leitmotiv through much of biology, with overtones extending into the early 20th century. The twin concepts of homology (similarity of origin) and analogy (similarity of appearance), in relation to structure, are the creation of the 19th-century British anatomist Richard Owen. Although they antedate the Darwinian view of evolution, the anatomical data on which they were based became, largely as a result of the work of the German comparative anatomist Carl Gegenbaur, important evidence in favor of evolutionary change, despite Owen’s steady unwillingness to accept the view of diversification of life from a common origin. In summary, anatomy moved from a purely descriptive phase as an adjunct to classificatory studies, into a partnership with studies of function and became, in the 19th century, a major contributor to the concept of evolution.  Taxonomy or systematics Not until the work of Carolus Linnaeus did the variety of life receive a widely accepted systematic treatment. Linnaeus strove for a “natural method of arrangement,” one that is now recognizable as an intuitive grasp of homologous relationships, reflecting evolutionary descent from a common ancestor; however, the natural method of arrangement sought by Linnaeus was more akin to the tenets of idealized morphology because he wanted to define a “type” form as epitomizing a species. It was in the nomenclatorial aspect of classification that Linnaeus created a revolutionary advance with the introduction of a Latin binomial system: each species received a Latin name, which was not influenced by local names and which invoked the authority of Latin as a language common to the learned people of that day. The Latin name has two parts. The first word in the Latin name for the common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes, for example, indicates the larger category, or genus, to which chimpanzees belong; the second word is the name of the  Taxonomy or systematics species within the genus. In addition to species and genera, Linnaeus also recognized other classificatory groups, or taxa (singular taxon), which are still used; namely, order, class, and kingdom, to which have been added family (between genus and order) and phylum (between class and kingdom). Each of these can be divided further by the appropriate prefix of sub- or super-, as in subfamily or superclass. Linnaeus’ great work, the Systema naturae, went through 12 editions during his lifetime; the 13th, and final, edition appeared posthumously. Although his treatment of the diversity of living things has been expanded in detail, revised in terms of taxonomic categories, and corrected in the light of continuing work—for example, Linnaeus treated whales as fish—it still sets the style and method, even to the use of Latin names, for contemporary nomenclatorial work. Linnaeus sought a natural method of arrangement, but he actually defined types of species on the basis of idealized morphology. The greatest change from Linnaeus’ outlook is reflected in the phrase “the new systematics,” which was  Taxonomy or systematics Linnaeus sought a introduced in the 20th century and through which an explicit effort is made to have taxonomic schemes reflect evolutionary history. The basic unit of classification, the species, is also the basic unit of evolution—i.e., a population of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals. Such a population shares, through interbreeding, its genetic resources. In so doing, it creates the gene pool—its total genetic material—that determines the biological resources of the species and on which natural selection continuously acts. This approach has guided work on classifying animals away from somewhat arbitrary categorization of new species to that of recreating evolutionary history (phylogeny) and incorporating it in the system of classification. Modern taxonomists or systematists, therefore, are among the foremost students of evolution.  Physiology The practical consequences of physiology have always been an unavoidable human concern, in both medicine and animal husbandry. Inevitably, from Hippocrates to the present, practical knowledge of human bodily function has accumulated along with that of domestic animals and plants. This knowledge has been expanded, especially since the early 1800s, by experimental work on animals in general, a study known as comparative physiology. The experimental dimension had wide applications following Harvey’s demonstration of the circulation of blood. From then on, medical physiology developed rapidly; notable texts appeared, such as Albrecht von Haller’s eight-volume work Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humani (Elements of Human Physiology), which had a medical emphasis. Toward the end of the 18th century the influence of chemistry on physiology became pronounced through Antoine Lavoisier’s brilliant analysis of respiration as a form of combustion. This French chemist not only determined that oxygen was consumed by living systems but also opened the way to further inquiry into the  Physiology energetics of living systems. His studies further strengthened the mechanistic view, which holds that the same natural laws govern both the inanimate and the animate realms. Physiological principles achieved new levels of sophistication and comprehensiveness with Bernard’s concept of constancy of the internal environment, the point being that only under certain constantly maintained conditions is there optimal bodily function. His rational and incisive insights were augmented by concurrent developments in Germany, where Johannes Müller explored the comparative aspects of animal function and anatomy, and Justus von Liebig and Car1 Ludwig applied chemical and physical methods, respectively, to the solution of physiological problems. As a result, many useful techniques were advanced—e.g., means for precise measurement of muscular action and changes in blood pressure and means for defining the nature of body fluids. By this time the organ systems—circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory, integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and skeletal – had  Physiology been defined, both anatomically and functionally, and research efforts were focused on understanding these systems in cellular and chemical terms, an emphasis that continues to the present and has resulted in specialties in cell physiology and physiological chemistry. General categories of research now deal with the transportation of materials across membranes; the metabolism of cells, including synthesis and breakdown of molecules; and the regulation of these processes. Interest has also increased in the most complex of physiological systems, the nervous system. Much comparative work has been done by utilizing animals with structures especially amenable to various experimental techniques; for example, the large nerves in squids have been extensively studied in terms of the transmission of nerve impulses, and insect and crustacean eyes have yielded significant information on patterns of sensory inputs. Most of this work is closely associated with studies on animal orientation and behavior. Although the contemporary physiologist often studies functional problems at the molecular and cellular levels, he is also aware of the need to integrate cellular studies into the many-faceted functions of the total organism.  Embryology, or Developmental Studies Embryonic growth and differentiation of parts have been major biological problems since ancient times. A 17th-century explanation of development assumed that the adult existed as a miniature—a homunculus—in the microscopic material that initiates the embryo. But in 1759 the German physician Caspar Friedrick Wolff firmly introduced into biology the interpretation that undifferentiated materials gradually become specialized, in an orderly way, into adult structures. Although this epigenetic process is now accepted as characterizing the general nature of development in both plants and animals, many questions remain to be solved. The French physician Marie François Xavier Bichat declared in 1801 that differentiating parts consist of various components called tissues; with the subsequent statement of the cell theory, tissues were resolved into their cellular constituents. The idea of epigenetic change and the identification of structural components made possible a new interpretation of differentiation. It was demonstrated that the egg gives rise  Embryology, or Developmental Studies to three essential germ layers out of which specialized organs, with their tissues, subsequently emerge. Then, following his own discovery of the mammalian ovum, von Baer in 1828 usefully applied this information when he surveyed the development of various members of the vertebrate groups. At this point, embryology, as it is now recognized, emerged as a distinct subject. The concept of cellular organization had an effect on embryology that continues to the present day. In the 19th century, cellular mechanisms were considered essentially to be the basis for growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis, or molding of parts. The distribution of the newly formed cells of the rapidly dividing zygote (fertilized egg) was precisely followed to provide detailed accounts not only of the time and mode of germ layer formation but also of the contribution of these layers to the differentiation of tissues and organs. Such descriptive information provided the background for experimental work aimed at elucidating the role of chromosomes and other cellular constituents in differentiation. About 1895, before the formulation of the chromosomal theory  Embryology, or Developmental Studies of heredity, Theodor Boveri demonstrated that chromosomes shows show continuity from one cell generation to the next. In fact, biologist soon concluded that in all cells arising from a fertilized egg, half the chromosomes are of maternal and half of paternal origin. The discovery of the constant transmission of the original chromosomal endowment to all cells of the body served to deepen the mystery surrounding the factors that determine cellular differentiation. The present view is that differential activity of genes is the basis for cellular and tissue differentiation; that is, although the cells of a multicellular body contain the same genetic information, different genes are active in different cells. The result is the formation of various gene products, which regulate the functional and structural differentiation of cells. The actual mechanism involved in the inactivation of certain genes and the activation of others, however, has not yet been established. That cells can move extensively throughout the embryo and selectively adhere to other cells, thus starting tissue aggregations,  Embryology, or Developmental Studies also contributes to development as does the fate of cells—i.e., certain ones continue to multiply, others stop, and some die. Research methods in embryology now exploit many experimental situations: both unicellular and multicellular forms; regeneration (replacement of lost parts) and normal development; and growth of tissues outside and inside the host. Hence, the processes of development can be studied with material other than embryos; and the study of embryology has become incorporated into the more inclusive subdiscipline of developmental biology.  Evolutionism Charles Darwin was not the first to speculate that organisms can change from generation to generation and so evolve, but he was the first to propose a mechanism by which the changes are accumulated. He proposed that heritable variations occur in conjunction with a never-ending competition for survival and that the variations favoring survival are automatically preserved. In time, therefore, the continued accumulation of variations results in the emergence of new forms. Because the variations that are preserved relate to survival, the survivors are highly adapted to their environment. To this process Darwin gave the apt name natural selection. Many of Darwin’s predecessors, notably Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, were willing to accept the idea of species variation, even though to do so meant denying the doctrine of special creation and the static-type species of Linnaeus. But they argued that some idealized perfecting principle, expressed through the habits of an organism, was the basis of variation. The contrast between the romanticism of Lamarck and the objective analysis of Darwin clearly reveals the type of  Evolutionism revolution provoked by the concept of natural selection. Although mechanistic explanations had long been available to biologists—forming, for example, part of Harvey’s explanation of blood circulation—they did not pervade the total structure of biological thinking until the advent of Darwinism. There were two immediate consequences of Darwin’s viewpoints. One has involved a reappraisal of all subject areas of biology; reinterpretations of morphology and embryology are good examples. The comparative anatomy of the British anatomist Owen became a cornerstone of the evidence for evolution, and German anatomists provided the basis for the comment that evolutionary thinking was born in England but gained its home in Germany. The reinterpretation of morphology carried over into the study of fossil forms, as paleontologists sought and found evidence of gradual change in their study of fossils. But some workers, although accepting evolution in principle, could not easily interpret the changes in terms of natural selection. The German paleontologist Otto Schindewolf, for example, found in shelled mollusks called ammonites evidence of progressive complexity and subsequent simplification of forms. The American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson,  Evolutionism however, has been a consistent interpreter of vertebrate fossils by Darwinian selection. Embryology was seen in an evolutionary light when the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel proposed that the epigenetic sequence of embryonic development (ontogeny) repeated its evolutionary history (phylogeny). Thus, the presence of gill clefts in the mammalian embryo and also in less highly evolved vertebrates can be understood as a remnant of a common ancestor. The other consequence of Darwinism—to make more explicit the origin and nature of heritable variations and the action of natural selection on them— depended on the emergence of the following: genetics and the elucidation of the rules of Mendelian inheritance; the concept of the gene as the unit of inheritance; and the nature of gene mutation. The development of these ideas provided the basis for the genetics of natural populations. The subject of population genetics began with the Mendelian laws of inheritance and now takes into account selection, mutation, migration (movement into and  Evolutionism out of a given population), breeding patterns, and population size. These factors affect the genetic makeup of a group of organisms that either interbreed or have the potential to do so; i.e., a species. Accurate appraisal of these factors allows precise predictions regarding the content of a given gene pool over significant periods of evolutionary time. From work involving population genetics has come the realization, eloquently documented by two contemporary American evolutionists, Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayer, that the species is the basic unit of evolution. The process of speciation occurs as a gene pool breaks up to form isolated gene pools. When selection pressures similar to those of the original gene pool persist in the new gene pools, similar functions and the similar structures on which they depend also persist. When selection pressures differ, however, differences arise. Thus, the process of speciation through natural selection preserves the evolutionary history of a species. The record may be discerned not only in the gross, or macroscopic, anatomy of organisms but also in their cellular structure and molecular organization. Significant work now is carried out.  Genetics The problem of heredity had been the subject of careful study before its definitive analysis by Mendel. As with Darwin’s predecessors, those of Mendel tended to idealize and interpret all inherited traits as being transmitted through the blood or as determined by various “humors” or other vague entities in animal organisms. When studying plants, Mendel was able to free himself of anthropomorphic and holistic explanations. By studying seven carefully defined pairs of characteristics—e.g., tall and short plants; red and white flowers, etc.—as they were transmitted through as many as three successive generations, he was able to establish patterns of inheritance that apply to all sexually reproducing forms. Darwin, who was searching for an explanation of inheritance, apparently never saw Mendel’s work, which was published in 1866 in the obscure journal of his local natural history society; it was simultaneously rediscovered in 1900 by three different European geneticists. Further progress in genetics was made early in the 20th century, when it was realized that heredity factors are found on chromosomes. The term gene was  Genetics coined for these factors. Studies by the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan on the fruit fly (Drosophila), moved animal genetics to the forefront of genetic research. The work of Morgan and his students established such major concepts as the linear array of genes on chromosomes; the exchange of parts between chromosomes; and the interaction of genes in determining traits, including sexual differences. In 1927 one of Morgan’s former students, Hermann Muller, used X rays to induce the mutations (changes in genes) in the fruit fly, thereby opening the door to major studies on the nature of variation. Meanwhile, other organisms were being used for genetic studies, most notably fungi and bacteria. The results of this work provided insights into animal genetics just as principles initially obtained from animal genetics provided insight into botanical and microbial forms. Work continues not only on the genetics of humans, domestic animals, and plants but also on the control of development through the orderly regulation of gene action in different cells and tissues..  Cellular and Molecular Biology More precisely, the cell doctrine was an inductive generalization based on the microscopial examination of certain plant and animal species. Rudolf Virchow, a German medical officer specializing in cellular pathology, first expressed the fundamental dictum regarding cells in his phrase omnis cellula e cellula (all cells from cells). For cellular reproduction is the ultimate basis of the continuity of life; the cell is not only the basic structural unit of life but also the basic physiological and reproductive unit. All areas of biology were affected by the new perspective afforded by the principle of cellular organization. Especially in conjunction with embryology was the study of the cell most prominent in animal biology. The continuity of cellular generations by reproduction also had implications for genetics. It is little wonder, then, that the full title of Wilson’s survey of cytology at the turn of the century was The Cell: Its Role in Development and Heredity.  Cellular and Molecular Biology Although the cell was recognized as the basic unit of life early in the 19th century, its most exciting period of inquiry has probably occurred since the 1940s. The new techniques developed since that time, notably the perfection of the electron microscope and the tools of biochemistry, have changed the cytological studies of the 19th and early 20th centuries from a largely descriptive inquiry, dependent on the light microscope, into a dynamic, molecularly oriented inquiry into fundamental life processes. The so-called cell theory, which was enunciated about 1838, was never actually a theory. As Edmund Beecher Wilson, the noted American cytologist, stated in his great work, The Cell, By force of habit we still continue to speak of the cell ‘theory’ but it is a theory only in name. In substance it is a comprehensive general statement of fact and as such stands today beside the evolution theory among the foundation stones of modern biology.  Cellular and Molecular Biology The study of the cell nucleus, its chromosomes, and their behavior served as the basis for understanding the regular distribution of genetic material during both sexual and asexual reproduction. This orderly behavior of the nucleus made it appear to dominate the life of the cell, for by contrast the components of the rest of the cell appeared to be randomly distributed. The biochemical study of life had helped in the characterization of the major molecules of living systems—proteins, nucleic acids, fats, and carbohydrates— and in the understanding of metabolic processes. That nucleic acids are a distinctive feature of the nucleus was recognized after their discovery by the Swiss biochemist Johann Friedrich Miescher in 1869. In 1944 a group of American bacteriologists, led by Oswald T. Avery, published work on the causative agent of pneumonia in mice (a bacterium) that culminated in the demonstration that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the chemical basis of heredity. Discrete segments of DNA correspond to genes, or Mendel’s hereditary  Cellular and Molecular Biology factors. Proteins were discovered to be especially important for their role in determining cell structure and in controlling chemical reactions. The advent of techniques for isolating and characterizing proteins and nucleic acids now allows a molecular approach to essentially all biological problems— from the appearance of new gene products in normal development or under pathological conditions to a monitoring of changes in and between nerve cells during the transmission of nerve impulses.  Ecology The harmony that Linnaeus found in nature, which redounded to the glory and wisdom of a Judaeo-Christian god, was the 18th-century counterpart of the balanced interaction now studied by ecologists. Linnaeus recognized that plants are adapted to the regions in which they grow, that insects play a role in flower pollination, and that certain birds prey on insects and are in turn eaten by other birds. This realization implies, in contemporary terms, the flow of matter and energy in a definable direction through any natural assemblage of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Such an assemblage, termed an ecosystem, starts with the plants, which are designated as producers because they maintain and reproduce themselves at the expense of energy from sunlight and inorganic materials taken from the nonliving environment around them (earth, air, and water). Animals are called consumers because they ingest plant material or other animals that feed on plants, using the energy stored in this food to sustain themselves. Lastly, the organisms known as decomposers, mostly fungi and bacteria, break down plant and animal material and return it to the environment in a form that can be used again by plants in a constantly renewed cycle.  Ecology The term ecology, first formulated by Ernst Haeckel in the latter part of the 19th century as “ecology” (from the Greek word for house, oikos), referred to the dwelling place of organisms in nature. In the 1890s various European and U.S. scientists laid the foundations for modern work through studies of natural ecosystems and the populations of organisms contained within them. Animal ecology, the study of consumers and their interactions with the environment, is very complex; attempts to study it usually focus on one particular aspect. Some studies, for example, involve the challenge of the environment to individuals with special adaptations (e.g., water conservation in desert animals); others may involve the role of one species in its ecosystem or the ecosystem itself. Food-chain sequences have been determined for various ecosystems, and the efficiency of the transfer of energy and matter within them has been calculated so that their capacity is known; that is, productivity in terms of numbers  Ecology of organisms or weight of living matter at a specific level in the food chain can be accurately determined (see biosphere). In spite of advances in understanding animal ecology, this subject area of zoology does not yet have the major unifying theoretical principles found in genetics (gene theory) or evolution (natural selection).  General Trends Zoology has become animal biology—that is, the life sciences display a new unity, one that is founded on the common basis of all life, on the gene pool– species organization of organisms, and on the obligatory interacting of the components of ecosystems. Even as regards the specialized features of animals—involving physiology, development, or behavior—the current emphasis is on elucidating the broad biological principles that identify animals as one aspect of nature. Zoology has thus given up its exclusive emphasis on animals— an emphasis maintained from Aristotle’s time well into the 19th century—in favor of a broader view of life. The successes in applying physical and chemical ideas and techniques to life processes have not only unified the life sciences but have also created bridges to other sciences in a way only dimly foreseen by earlier workers. The practical and theoretical consequences of this trend have just begun to be realized. REF: https://www.britannica.com/science/zoology/Areas-of-study  For your Assignment : Check the due date of the submission 1. What is animal study in psychology? 2. Advantages and disadvantages of animal studies (3 only each) 3. Laws governing animal testing in the Philippines (5 only) 4. Follow format; a. Cover page b. Copy the assignment c. Answer d. Reflection e. References