Environmental Science Unit 1 PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIT– 1 ENVIRONMENT & ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Basics of environment: Introduction & definition to Environment, objectives and guiding principles of environmental education, Component...

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIT– 1 ENVIRONMENT & ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Basics of environment: Introduction & definition to Environment, objectives and guiding principles of environmental education, Components of environment, Structure of atmosphere, Sustainable environment/Development, Impact of technology on the environment in terms of modern agricultural practices and industrialization, Environmental Impact Assessment. 4 Hr Environmental protection: Role of Government - Assignments of MOEF, Functions of central and state boards, Environmental Legislations, Institutions in Environment and People in Environment, Initiative and Role of Non-government organizations in India and world. 3 Hr Basic Definitions: The term “Environment” was coined by CARLYLE in 1828, a person from south Scotland. The environment can be broadly defined as our surroundings. The word Environment originated from French word “Environ” which means ‘things that surround/encircle’. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc. and abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environment can also be defined as follows: 1. Environment is the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development and life of all organisms on earth. The living organisms vary from the lowest microorganisms such as bacteria, Virus, fungus etc to the highest including human beings. Each organism has its own environment. (Physical and biological surroundings and their interactions). 2. Environment is the physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us. 1.2. Objectives and guiding principles of environmental studies: The objectives of environmental education are as follows: (a) Awareness: To help social groups and individuals acquire awareness and sensitivity to the total environmental and its allied problems. (b) Knowledge: To help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experiences in and acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 1 (c) Attitude: To help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings of concern for the environment and motivation for actively participation in environmental improvement and protection. (d) Skill: To help social groups and individuals acquire skills for identifying and solving environmental problems. (e) Evaluation ability: To help individuals and social groups to evaluate environmental measures and education programs in terms of ecological, economic, social, aesthetic and educational factors. (f) Participation: To provide social groups and individuals with the opportunities to be actively involved at all levels in working towards the resolution of environmental problems. The overall goal of environmental education can be expressed in another form as three principal objectives (UNESCO, 1977). 1- To foster clear awareness and concern about economic, social, political and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas. 2- To create new patterns of behaviors of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the environment. 3. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment. Guiding Principles of Environmental Education: Environmental education must attempt to imbibe in learners a value oriented thought to take care of the sustainable development. According to UNESCO (1971) the guiding principles of environmental education should be as follows: a) The environment must be comprehended as a system which is a functional unit composed of organized, interacting and independent parts. b) Environment education should be compulsory, right from the primary level upto the post graduate stage. c) Environmental education should have an interdisciplinary approach by including physical, chemical, biological as well as socio-cultural aspects of the environment. d) Environmental education should take into account the historical prospective, the current and the potential historical issues. e) Environmental education should emphasis the importance of sustainable developments. f) Environmental education should emphasis the necessity of local, national and international cooperation in environmental planning. g) Environmental education should emphasis the necessity of environmental impact assessment in propose developmental projects to minimize the environmental effects. h) Environmental education should lay more stress on practical experience and self- experiences. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 2 1.3. Components of Environment: The two major classifications of environment are: (A) Physical Environment: External physical factors like Air, Water, and Land etc. This is also called the abiotic Environment. (B) Living Environment: All living organisms around us viz. plants, animals, and microorganisms. This is also called the biotic Environment. Earth’s environment can be further subdivided into the following four segments/ Components/Conceptual spheres: 1. Atmosphere (air or gaseous containing mainly N2, O2& CO2) 2. Hydrosphere (water containing dissolved oxygen & salts) 3. Lithosphere (Solid or Land containing Minerals, salts, food & nutrients) 4. Biosphere (Life bearing layer) Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth is called the Atmosphere. Atmosphere may be considered as a transport component that moves the substances from atmospheric sources to the receptors. Its storage capacity for matter is small compared to the other spheres, but it has an immense capability for spatially redistributing matters. Atmosphere is divided into Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere or Thermosphere & Exosphere based on atmospheric condition and characteristics. Hydrosphere: Approximately 74.5 per cent of the earth’s surface is made up of water and constitutes the hydrosphere. The water resources include oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, glaciers, polar ice caps and ground water. Of this, about 97 per cent of the water is salty and is present in oceans and seas, 2.3 per cent is present as ice caps and the remaining less than1 per cent (0.7%) as fresh water which we use variously. Water near the poles is very cold and freezes to form polar ice caps, glaciers or icebergs. However, at the equator water evaporates into gas due to high temperature. The frozen water in its own sphere is known as ‘Cryosphere’. Water is very essential for life and it is believed that the first signs of life were found in water. Lithosphere (Land): The Lithosphere is the solid shell of inorganic material on the surface of the earth. It is composed of soil particles and the underlying rocks down to a depth of 50km. The uppermost part of the solid earth, consisting of weathered rocks, minerals and organic matters together, is known as soil. The soil layer is also referred to as the Pedosphere which is a mixture of inorganic and organic solid matter, air, water and micro-organisms. Within Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 3 the soil, biochemical reactions by micro-organisms are responsible for most of the chemical changes of matter. Land is very important for use in agriculture, industrialization, transportation, recreation, etc. The interior of the lithosphere consists of mantle followed by core. Crust: It is a solid outer layer or hard outer Covering surface of the earth. Thickness: Minimum: 5 km i.e., beneath the ocean. Oceanic Crust, Density: 3 to 3.3 g/cc Maximum: ≈ 80 to 100km i.e., at the highest mountain ranges. Continental Crust, Density: 2.7 to 3 g/cc Mantle: Thickness: ≈ 2900 km Average density: 3 to 5.5 g/cc Temperature: ≈ 7000C to 18000C Core: Begins at a depth of 2900 km. i) Outer core: ≈ 2300km, Density=10 to 12g/cc, Composition: Fe, Ni, S and Oxygen ii) Inner core: ≈ 1200km, Density=12 to 13g/cc, Composition: Fe and Nickel. Temperature: ≈ 40000C to 57000C Biosphere: It is that part of earth where living (biotic) organisms exist and interact with one another and also with the non-living (abiotic) components. The living organisms include all of the micro- organisms, plants and animals. Biosphere reaches well into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants in the atmosphere. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 4 Relative to the volume of the earth, the biosphere constitutes only a very thin surface layer, which extends from 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above it. In general, biosphere includes most of the hydrosphere as well as parts of lower atmosphere and upper lithosphere. The biosphere contains large quantities of elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. Other essential elements like phosphorus, calcium and potassium are present in smaller amounts. Bulk of the functioning in the eco-system is based on the input of solar energy and there is continual recycling of materials at the ecosystem and biosphere levels. For example, green plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen into the atmosphere, which is then inhaled by the animals for respiration who in return release carbon dioxide. In the biosphere, there exist interactions among the organisms. When an organism interacts with members of its own kind, it is an intra-specific interaction like colonization and then aggregation, etc. On the other hand, interaction between different species is known as inter-specific interaction like neutralism, competition and prey-predator relationships. The interactions may be harmful or beneficial to the participants but are very important for the survival, growth, reproduction and continuance of the species. These four spheres (Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere) are closely inter- related and their inter-relation can be schematically depicted as follows: A B L H 1.4. Structures of atmosphere: In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions. Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and recognizable through means such as balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish between atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 5 From highest to lowest, the five main layers are: Exosphere: 700 to 1600 km Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km Troposphere: 0 to 12 km The Atmosphere is divided into layers according to major changes in temperature. Gravity pushes the layers of air down on the earth's surface. This push is called air pressure. 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is below 32 kilometers. Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (at poles troposphere extends up to 8 kms and at equator 16 kms)- Contains 75% of the gases in the atmosphere. This is where you live and where weather occurs. As height increases, temperature decreases. The temperature drops about 6.5 degrees Celsius for every kilometer above the earth's surface. Tropopause - located at the top of the troposhere. The temperature remains fairly constant here. This layer separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. We find the jet stream here. These are very strong winds that blow eastward. Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km - The temperature in this region increases with altitude from -600C to -20C. This layer contains the ozone layer. Ozone acts as a shield for in the earth's surface. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This causes a temperature increase in the upper part of the layer. Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km -The temperature drops in this layer to about -90 or -100 degrees Celsius, i.e. temperature decreases with altitude from -20Cto -900C. This is the coldest region of the atmosphere. This layer protects the earth from meteoroids (A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body travelling through space). They burn up in this area. Thermosphere: 80 km and up - The air is very thin. Thermosphere means "heat sphere". The temperature is very high in this layer because ultraviolet radiation is turned into heat. Temperatures often reach 2000 degrees Celsius or more. This layer contains: Ionosphere: This is the lower part of the thermosphere. It extends from about 80 to 700 km. Gas particles absorb ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from the sun. The particles of gas become electrically charged (ions). Radio waves are bounced off the ions and reflect waves back to earth. This generally helps radio communication. However, solar flares can increase the number of ions and can interfere with the transmission of some radio waves. Exosphere: The upper part of the atmosphere. It extends from about 700 km for 1600kilometers. Air is very thin here. This is the area where satellites orbit the earth. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 6 Magnetosphere: The area around the earth that extends beyond the thermosphere. The earth's magnetic field operates here. It begins at about 1000 km. It is made up of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. This traps the particles that are given off by the sun. They are concentrated into belts or layers called the Van Allen radiation belts. The Van Allen belts trap deadly radiation. When large amounts are given off during a solar flare, the particles collide with each other causing the aurora borealis or the northern lights. NOTE: Note: Lapse Rate: Temperature lapse rate is the rate of change of temperature with altitude. The rate of temperature change decrease with increase in altitude and occurs in an unperturbed dry air mass at 9.8oC. This is called the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Lapse rate is taken positive when temperature decreases with increasing height. Temperature Inversion: Temperature inversion is the condition in which the temperature of the atmosphere increases with altitude in contrast to the normal decrease with altitude. When temperature inversion occurs cold air underlies warmer air at higher altitudes. Temperature inversion may occur during passage of cold front or result from the inversion of sea air by cooler on shore breeze. Carrying capacity: It is the number of individual in an environment can support without degradation. Upper limit of development, beyond which the quality of human life, health, welfare, safety or community character with in an area will be adversely affected. Estimated carrying capacity of the earth = 10 to 15 billion people. Carrying capacity can be increased by:  Increased food production from same land.  Waste water technologies.  Rain water harvesting. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 7 Ecological Footprints: It is defined as the productive area required to produce the natural resources you consume and the required land to dispose the waste that you generate. It is also defined as a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems, the amount of natural capital used each year. The footprint of a region can be contrasted with the natural resources it generates. 1.5. Sustainable Environment/Sustainable Development: Environmental sustainability involves making decisions and taking action that are in the interests of protecting the natural world, with particular emphasis on preserving the capability of the environment to support human life. It is an important topic at the present time, as people are realizing the full impact that businesses and individuals can have on the environment. Sustainable development is the key to sustainable environment. According to G. H. Brundtland (former director of WHO & Prime minister of Norway) sustainable development means “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”. Over exploitation of natural resources, particularly by the developed countries, since 1970s is fast heading towards unsustainable growth and collapse of our life support base. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The declaration on agenda- 21 adopts a global programme of action on sustainable development in social, economic and political contexts for 21st Century. The important components of sustainable development are:  Population stabilization (growth below 0.5%)  Integrated land use planning  Conservation of Biodiversity  Air and water pollution control  Renewable energy resources  Recycling of wastes and residues  Environmental education and awareness at all levels. Objectives of sustainable development:  Primary goal is to achieve a reasonable and equitable distributed level of economic well- being that can be maintained continually for future generations.  Displacement of materials by industrial and agricultural activities or human induced material flow causing the severe anthropogenic impact on the natural system needs to be studied and compared with the natural flows.  It implies using renewable natural resources in a manner which does not degrade or eliminate them or diminish their usefulness for future generations.  It requires depleting non-renewable energy resources at a slow rate so as to ensure the high probability of an orderly society transition to renewable energy sources. Depending on above, sustainability can be divided into 3 types: i) Social ii) Ecological iii) Economical. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 8 1.6. Impact of Technology/Human activities on the environment in terms of modern agricultural practices and industrialization: Improvement of technologies in the following fields causes major impacts on the environment i.e. atmosphere/Hydrosphere/Lithosphere:  Agriculture  Housing  Industries  Transportation activities  Mining Agriculture: Agriculture method was discovered almost 10,000 years ago. In the early period, man used the primitive practice of slash and burn cultivation or shifting cultivation, which is still prevalent in many tribal areas, as in north east India in hill regions. Two modes of Agriculture: 1. Traditional method of Agriculture 2. Modern method of Agriculture Traditional Agriculture: It involves small plots, simple tools, natural water, organic fertilizer and several crops. The yield is however low, but it is still used by about 50% of the world population. Impacts of traditional agricultural method: i) Depletion of nutrients: During slash and burn of trees in forests, the organic matter in soil is destroyed and within a short period most of the nutrients are taken up by the crops. Thus the soil becomes deficient in nutrients and compels the cultivators to shift to another area. ii) Deforestation: Forest land is cleared by slash and burn of trees in forest for cultivation purposes. Frequent shifting of cultivation plots leads to deforestation i.e loss of forest cover. iii) Soil erosion: As a result of deforestation, soil gets exposed to weathering forces i.e rain, wind and storms & it is subjected to erosion. The net result is loss of top fertile soil. It takes 300 years to form 1 inch top fertile soil. Modern Agriculture: It is based on high input – high output technique using hybrid seeds of high yielding variety and abundant irrigation water, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. This is the basis of “Green Revolution” which boosted the production of wheat and other crops and India became self-sufficient in food. Impacts of modern agricultural method on environment (Atmosphere/hydrosphere/Lithosphere): i) Impact from HYV (High yielding varieties): Application of seeds of HYV gave rise to monoculture ie., same species grown over vast areas, such monoculture is vulnerable to attack by some pathogen, which spreads like wild fire, devastating crops over large area. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 9 ii) Fertilizer problems: Essential micronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK) are supplied by chemical fertilizers. Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance in the soil which ultimately loses productivity. iii) Nitrate pollution: From agricultural fields nitrogenous fertilizers leach into soil and finally contaminate ground water. When the nitrate level in ground water exceeds 25mg/l, they can cause a serious health hazard “Blue baby syndrome”, which affect mostly infants (babies under age 7) even leading to death. [Blue baby syndrome/Methaemoglobinemia: Gastric juices (body fluids) of new born baby are neutral rather than acidic. So nitrates easily get reduced to nitrites. The absorption of nitrites into the blood stream and their combination with haemoglobin forms the complex methaemoglobin. Methaemoglobin does not have the ability to carry oxygen, so that the organs and tissues of the body are deprived (lack/poor) of this life sustaining element Oxygen resulting in Blue coloration of the body of the baby] iv) Eutrophication: Agricultural run-off water contains fertilizer components particularly Nitrogen & Phosphorous, which reaches nearby water bodies and causes the over nourishment of lakes or water bodies and give rise to the phenomenon of Eutrophication. (Eu means more and Trophication means nutrition). As a result, there is an excessive growth of algal species, which is known as algal bloom. The water body or lake soon gets filled up with algal species which quickly complete their life cycle and die thus adding a lot of organic matter. Dissolved oxygen in the lake is consumed (lowered) for the oxidation of these organic matters and fish get killed so that the lake becomes a dead pool of water devoid of plants and animals. Thus the lake ecosystem gets degraded due to Eutrophication. v) Pesticide side effects: Several thousand pesticides are used in agriculture for destroying pest and boosting crop production. In the early period of human civilization arsenic, sulphur, lead and mercury were used to pests. From 1940 onwards synthetic organic pesticides such as DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane) discovered by Paul Muller 1939 have been used. During 1940-50, it saved 5 million lives from malaria, typhus etc and also protected crops from huge loss. But DDT and other pesticides show number of harmful side effects on environment. DDT and many other pesticides are non-biodegradable and so persist in the food chain which enters even human beings, which quite harmful. vi) Water logging: Excessive irrigation of croplands for good growth of crop leads to water logging. In the absence of adequate drainage, excess water is accumulated which seeps into the underlying water table. Pore spaces in the soil get fully drenched with water and soil-air becomes deficient. The water table rises and the roots of plants have insufficient air for respiration. This declines crop yield with decrease in soil strength. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 10  vii) Salinity problem: In addition to water logging, salinity also rises from excessive irrigation. So the soil gets enriched with salt such as Sodium chloride, Sodium sulphate, Calcium chloride, Magnesium chloride etc. Salinity causes stunted plant growth and reduces crop yield. Industry: Industrialization has brought economic prosperity; additionally it has resulted in more population, urbanization, obvious stress on the basic life supporting systems while pushing the environmental impacts closer to the threshold limits of tolerance. With booming industrial growth and relatively low land mass, environmental sustainability is now becoming a significant deciding factor in industrial development process. Industries produce environmental hazards everywhere. Examples of such industry are Chemical, Pharmacy, Biomedical, Textile, Sugar, Tanneries (leather), and metallurgical industry. Impacts on environment (Atmosphere/hydrosphere/Lithosphere):  Pressure on land and other natural resources for raw materials.  Water pollution  Air pollution  Soil contamination  Noise pollution  Destruction of habitat  Pressure on transport system  Disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors  Threatening ozone layer with depletion So in order to reduce the harmful effects on environment, the industries should treat their wastes before disposal in such a way that it does not have the harmful impacts on environment. 1.7. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): History: Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental awareness. EIAs involved a technical evaluation intended to contribute to more objective decision making. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969, with enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act. EIAs have been used increasingly around the world. The number of "Environmental Assessments" filed every year "has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact Statements (EIS). An EIS is a document required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for certain actions "significantly affecting the quality of the human environment". An EIS is a tool for decision making. It describes the positive and negative environmental effects of a proposed action, and it usually also lists one or more alternative actions that may be chosen instead of the action described in the EIS. An Environmental Assessment is a "mini-EIS designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary. EIA is an activity that is done to find out the impact that would be done before development will occur. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 11 Definition: The exercise of visualizing or assessing the effects of a project on the environment before taking it up is called Environmental Impact Assessment, which prevents environmental and economic liabilities (burden) that may arise in future. Large scale man made activities create environmental impacts. The effects of these activities can be felt during the construction and operation of projects. It became difficult to mitigate (reduce) or avoid the ill effects after establishing the projects. Therefore the impacts that may arise later have to be visualized beforehand so that the developmental activities are harmonized (coordinated) with the environment. Project proposal must have the following details prior to submission to the government department: Step 1: Description of the project and site of construction. Estimation of water and other required raw materials. Industrial processes, production etc are described. Step 2: Alternative site for the project is evaluated for consideration. Step 3: Baseline data collection – It describes the existing environmental status of the study area which is the area covered by a certain radius with the proposed project/industry as the centre. In the base line study, data on the following aspects are collected.  Land and land use pattern  Existing water resources – Quantity and quality wise  Air quality  Metrology & Climate data such as temperature, wind speed, wind direction, rainfall & humidity  Soil quality  Seismological characteristics  Noise and traffic  Biological environment – plant species, animal and endangered species.  Agricultural potential  Historical sites and monuments  Tourist spots& Religious centers  Wild life Sanctuaries  Schools, hospitals etc.  Demography, cultural and socio-economic environment  Any other environmentally significant parameter. The possible impacts of the proposed project on the existing environmental setting are assessed by superimposing the effects of the project on the existing environment. If the impacts are not acceptable, corrective measures are incorporated into the proposed project and then correlated with the existing environmental set up. If significant negatives are not observed, work on the project may be permitted otherwise permission will not be given. In the EIA exercise, the public is also allowed to participate and express its opinion. Based on the outcome of the EIA studies, a status report called ‘Environmental Impact Statement’ (EIS) is prepared, which serves as a guideline for establishing environmentally sustainable activity. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 12  In India, the ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) guides & controls the EIA process through the state pollution control boards. The EIA Process: In India, there is an elaborate EIA process involving many steps such as Screening, Preliminary Assessment, Scoping, Main EIA including public hearing, appraisal etc. The environment impact assessment consists of eight steps with each step equally important in determining the overall performance of the project. Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure time and resources are directed at the proposals that matter environmentally and end with some form of follow up on the implementation of the decisions and actions taken as a result of an EIA report. The eight steps of the EIA process are presented in brief below:  Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project, requires an EIA and if it does, then the level of assessment required.  Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impacts that should be further investigated. This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.  Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts the likely environmental and social impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.  Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse environmental consequences of development activities.  Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision- making body and other interested parties.  Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides the information necessary for decision-making.  Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.  Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commenced. It checks to ensure that the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report. 1.8. Environmental Protection Role of Government: Rules and regulations have been framed in most of the countries in order to protect the environment. In this regard Japan is the first country that amended laws for punishment of crimes against environment. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 13 India’s active interest in environment was initiated in 1972 when the then Prime Minister (late Smt.Indira Gandhi) attended the United Nations Conference on Human Environment. A National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co-ordination (NCEPC) was created to act as the apex advisory body in the Department of Science and Technology (DST). The successor of NCEPC was the Department of Environment (DOEn) in 1980 within the ministry of Science and Technology, headed by the Prime Minister. The DOEn is the nodal agency to ensure environmental protection, to conduct environmental impact studies of development projects and have the administrative responsibility for pollution monitoring and control. In 1985, the topics of wildlife and forests were added to the list and a new ministry of Environment and Forests was created, which remained under the charge of the Prime Minister. The Committee which recommended to form separate ministry was headed by N. D. Tiwary. The assignments of the Ministry of Environment and Forests are: i) Environmental laws and policies ii) Environmental monitoring and control iii) Survey & conservation of Natural Resources iv) Management of forests and conservation of Wildlife v) Environmental education, awareness and information vi) International Co-operation. Different Government Acts/Regulations were enacted or promulgated to minimize the pollution and degradation of environment. Fundamental duties; Article 48-A & 51-A: According to 48-A, “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.” According to 51-A, “It shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.” Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): The Central Pollution Control Board, a statutory organization was established in September 1974, under the water act, 1974. It serves as the technical adviser to the Central Government(MOEF) on any matter concerning the prevention and control of pollution with the provisions of Environment Protection Act, 1986. Functions of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): Subjected to the provisions of Water Act and Air Act, the functions of the Central Board are; 1. To advice the central government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water and air pollution. 2. To coordinate the activities of state boards and resolve disputes among them. 3. To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the states by prevention, control, and abatement of water pollution. 4. Provide technical assistance and guidance to the state board, carry out and sponsor investigation and research relating to problems of water pollution. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 14  5. Organize through mass media, a comprehensive program regarding the prevention and control of water pollution. 6. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and the measure devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes regarding the treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents. 7. Establish and recognize a laboratory to enable the board to perform its functions under this section effectively. Functions of State Board (SPCB): 1. To plan the comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution of stream and wells in the state. 2. To advice the state government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement of pollution. 3. To collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution and their prevention and control. 4. To encourage, conduct and participate in investigation and research relating to the problems of water pollution. 5. To collaborate with central board in organizing the training of persons. 6. To inspect effluent treatment plants, trade wastes and domestic wastes. Environmental Legislation: The Environment (Protection) Act 1986: This act came into force on November 19, 1986, the birth anniversary of our Late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. She took keen interest in environmental issues of the country. This act aimed to protect and improve the quality of environment by Central Government with coordination of the State Government. This act deals with standards of quality of air, water and soil. This act consists of 4 chapters containing 26 sections. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was amended in 1994 to include Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA) of various developmental projects. These projects have to take clearance from the central government prior to establishment. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: This Act came into force on 23rd March 1974. This act was amended in the years 1978 and 1988. The Water Act was enacted under article 252(1) of the constitution as a social welfare measure which includes the following points: i) To prevent and control water pollution through the establishment of Central and State boards. ii) To provide and confer powers and functions to the Central and State board to restore wholesomeness of water. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972: This act came into force on 9th December 1972 in all states and union territories of India, except the state of Jammu and Kashmir, by the notification of the Central Government. The act was amended in the years 1982 and 1986. It contains 7 chapters, 6 schedule and 66 sections. The main aim of this act is to assure conservation and management of wild life. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 15 The major activities under this act are as follows: i) To develop major protected areas like National parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves. ii) Protection to endangered plants and animals. iii) There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale, transfer etc. iv) Grant of permit to hunt the animals for special purpose like collection of specimens for recognized Zoo or for Museum. v) Hunting of wild animals to be banned. vi) There is total restriction of entry in sanctuary. vii) Central Zoo authority was also formed. Forest Conservation Act, 1980: In spite of enforcement of Indian Forest Act, 1927, and National Forest Policy, 1952, deforestation continued. To solve this problem, forest conservation ordinance, 1980, was passed by the president of India, which was later accepted as Forest Conservation Act, 1980. This act came into force on 25th October 1980. This act extended to all Indian states and Union territories except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This act was amended in 1988. The main aims and the features of this act include: i) The concept that the large scale deforestation, which is still continued, disturbs the ecological balance and degree environment is the basis for this act to come into enforcement. Thus the use of effective measures to control deforestation is the main aim of this act. ii) The provisions of this act are effective for all kinds of forests. iii) Forests shall be considered as natural resource and not an economic resource. iv) According to section 2, the state government or any other authority needs to take prior approval of central government for using forest land for non-forestry purposes. v) Permission in such cases may be granted only for development activities and only when there exists enough provision of reforestation in an equivalent area. vi) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes this act shall be punished. vii) This act has provisions to restrict encroachment of forest lands by landless tribal people. Air (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1981: The Air (Prevention and Control of pollution) act, was enacted on 29th March 1981, by the parliament to implement the decision taken at the United Nation Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972 in which India participated. It includes the preservation of the quality of air and control of Air Pollution. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 16 Objectives: The main objectives of act were as follows, i) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. ii) To provide for the establishment of Central and State Boards. iii) To provide for conferring powers and functions to such boards. iv) To lay down the standards to maintain the quality of air. Many other acts were also enacted to prevent the environmental pollution such as i) Public liability insurance act (1991) ii) Motor Vehicle Act (1988) iii) The national environment tribunal act (1995) iv) Biomedical waste (handling & management) Rule (1995). v) Noise pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules (2000) vi) Municipal solid waste (Management and Handling) Rules (1999). 1.9. Institutes and People in environment: Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organizations include government organizations such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS, WWF-I, etc. 1. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai: The BNHS began as a small society of six members in 1883. Its major contribution has been in the field of wildlife research. It is India’s oldest conservation research based NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of the battle for species and ecosystems. The BNHS has over the years helped Government to frame wildlife related laws and has taken up battles such as the ‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign etc. 2. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in Mumbai after which the headquarters were shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all over India. WWF-International is located at Glands in Switzerland. The early years focused attention on wildlife education and awareness. 3. Center for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi: Activities of this Center include organizing campaigns, holding workshops and conferences, and producing environment related publications. It published a major document on the ‘State of India’s Environment’, the first of its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on the Environment. 4. CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras: Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 17 The CPR EEC was set up in 1988.It conducts a variety of programs to spread environmental awareness and creates an interest in conservation among the general public. 5. Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989.It has a wide range of programs on the environment and produces a variety of educational material. 6. Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research (BVIEER), Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD, a Masters and Bachelors program in Environmental Sciences. It also offers an innovative Diploma in Environment Education for in-service teachers. 7. Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun: This Institution was established in 1982, as a major training establishment for Forest Officials and Research in Wildlife Management. 8. Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore: This institution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream that became a reality only after his demise. He wished to support a group of committed conservation scientists on a permanent basis. 9. Uttarakhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The Organization is a Nodal Agency which supports NGOs in need of funds for their environment related activities. 10. Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The BSI was established in1890. 11. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI was established in1916. People in Environment: There are several internationally known environmental thinkers. Among those who have made landmarks, the names that are usually mentioned are Charles Darwin, Ralph Emerson, Henry Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel Carson and EO Wilson. Each of these thinkers looked at the environment from a completely different perspective. 1. Charles Darwin wrote the ‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light the close relationship between habitats and species. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 18 2. Ralph Emerson spoke of the dangers of commerce to our environment way back in the 1840s. 3. Henry Thoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilderness should be preserved after he lived in the wild for a year. He was an American naturalist, author and philosopher. 4. John Muir is remembered as having saved the great ancient sequoia trees in California's forests. In the 1890s he formed the Sierra club, which is a major conservation NGO in the USA. 5. In the 1960s Rachel Carson published several articles that caused immediate worldwide concern on the effects of pesticides on nature and mankind. 6. EO Wilson is an entomologist (entomologist is a scientist who studies insects) who envisioned that biological diversity was a key to human survival on earth. He wrote ‘Diversity of Life’ in 1993, which was awarded a prize for the best book published on environmental issues. 7. Salim Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in India and with the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). He also wrote several great books including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’. His autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be read by every nature enthusiast. 8. Indira Gandhias PM has played a highly significant role in the preservation of India’s wildlife. She is the first person (politician) who took the keen interest in environment. 9. S P Godrej (Indian businessperson, entrepreneur and the chairman of Godrej Group) was one of India’s greatest supporters of wildlife conservation and nature awareness programs. Between 1975 and 1999, SP Godrej received 10 awards for his conservation activities. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1999. 10. M S Swaminathan is one of India’s foremost agricultural scientists and has also been concerned with various aspects of biodiversity conservation both of cultivars and wild biodiversity. 11. Madhav Gadgil is a well-known ecologist in India. His interests range from broad ecological issues such as developing Community biodiversity Registers and conserving sacred groves to studies on the behaviour of mammals, birds and insects. 12. M C Mehta is undoubtedly India’s most famous environmental lawyer. Since 1984, he has filed several Public Interest Litigations for supporting the cause of environmental conservation. His most famous and long drawn battles supported by the Supreme Court include protecting the Taj Mahal, cleaning up the Ganges River, banning intensive shrimp farming on the coast, initiating Government to implement environmental education in schools and colleges, and a variety of other conservation issues. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 19 13. Anil Agarwal was a journalist who wrote the first report on the ‘State of India’s Environment’ in 1982. He founded the Center for Science and Environment which is an active NGO that supports various environmental issues. 14. Medha Patkaris known as one of India’s champions who has supported the cause of downtrodden tribal people whose environment is being affected by the dams on the Narmada River. 15. Sunderlal Bahuguna’s Chipko Movement has become an internationally well-known example of a highly successful conservation action program through the efforts of local people for guarding their forest resources. His fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri Dam in a fragile earthquake prone setting is a battle that he continues to wage. The Garhwal Hills (Uttarakhand) will always remember his dedication to the cause for which he has walked over 20 thousand kilometers. 16. Mahatma Gandhiji: He is undoubtedly one of the great patriarch of mother earth and environment. He made people to interrogate themselves, through his quotes such as “earth provides enough to satisfy every person’s need, but not greed” and “what we are doing to the forest of the world, is but a mirror reflection of what we are doing to ourselves and to one another. 1.10. Initiatives by Non-Governmental organizations (NGO): NGOs play important roles in environmental awareness and education. Out of about 200 NGOs, 170 are engaged these areas; 50 in nature conservation, 50 in pollution control, 45 in afforestation and social forestry, 15 in rural development and 10 in eco-development. Most of these carry out academically oriented activities. In critical situations, they also launch environmental movements. Among the pioneer NGOs, mention should be made of the following; 1. Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP): Involved in Silent valley movement and succeeded. 2. Bombay Natural history society: It was set up at Mumbai in September 1883. 3. Centre for Science and environment (CSE), New Delhi, It was set up in 1980. 4. World-Wide Fund for Nature-India (WWF-I), New Delhi: It was established in 1969 in Mumbai and shifted to New Delhi. The coordinating body WWF International is located in Gland in Switzerland. 5. Uttarakhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: UKSN is a Nodal Agency that gives financial support to needful NGO’s for their environment related activities. 6. Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO is active in several parts of India. 7. The Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore. 8. Nilgiri wildlife and Environment Association. 9. Centre for Environmental Education (CEE), was set up in 1984. 10. Gandhi Peace Foundation: It was started at Delhi in June 1979. Major International NGOs includes Greenpeace and Green cross International, WWF- International etc. Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 20 Objectives of NGO’s: l. To highlight role of NGOs in the environment protection and to specify the aims and objectives of environmental NGOs 2. To describe and analyze achievements of some environmental NGOs in India. 3. To point out the limitations in performance of environmental NGOs in India. Role of NGO: 1. Creating awareness among people on current environmental issues and their solutions. 2. Being involved in the protection of human right to have a clean environment. 3. Transferring information through newsletter, articles, brochures and individuals etc. 4. Conducting participatory rural appraisal. 5. Helping the village administrative officials in the preparation, application and execution of projects on environmental protection. Major Environmental Movements: Chipko Movement: In 1973, the Chipko movement (Chipko means to hug or stick to) was launched by Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunder Lal Bahuguna against large scale felling of trees by timber contractors in the Uttarakhand hills. Silent Valley Movement: Silent Valley occupies an area of 8950 hectares at an altitude of 3000ft in Palakkad district, Kerala. It is surrounded by the thick biodiversity i.e., various species of animals such as Lion Tailed monkeys and plants. The Kerala State government decided to construct a dam in the Silent Valley for generation of 120MW of electricity in 1976. In order to save the Silent Valley from destruction in the process of government dam project, the Kerala-based NGO, Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) launched the Silent Valley movement, supported by students, teachers and people of Kerala. Finally the prime Minister in 1983 (Smt. Indira Gandhi) accepted the recommendation of top scientists and environmentalists and declared the Silent Valley as the Biosphere Reserve by cancelling the hydel project proposed by State Government. Narmada Bachao Andolan: Madhya Pradesh Government undertook a gigantic plan-Narmada Basin Development Programme-which involves construction of 31 large dams for Narmada and its tributaries. The benefit was high, but according to environmentalists and environment action groups, massive damming of the Narmada River could be a blueprint for disaster. The basin is one of the densest forests in India. The project would imply displacement of over 1 million people, mostly tribals, submerging of over 1000 villages and over 50,000 hectares of agricultural land and also loss of forests in the region. The environmental action groups, led by the environmentalist, Smt. Medha Patkar, organized sustained movement to stall the projects of Sardar Sarovar and Narmada Sagar dams and partly succeeded. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Department of Chemistry, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru. 21