Learn to Write Better Academic Essays PDF

Collins E A P riting earn to write better academic essays Els Van Geyte Academic Skills Series Collins E A P Learn to write better academic essays Els Van Geyte Academic Skills Series Collins HarperCollins Publishers 77-85 Fulham Palace Road Hammersmith L...

Collins E A P riting earn to write better academic essays Els Van Geyte Academic Skills Series Collins E A P Learn to write better academic essays Els Van Geyte Academic Skills Series Collins HarperCollins Publishers 77-85 Fulham Palace Road Hammersmith London W6 8JB First edition 2013 Reprint 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 © HarperCollins Publishers 2013 ISBN 978-0-00-750710-8 Collins® is a registered trademark of HarperCollins Publishers Limited www.collinselt.com A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Typeset in India by Aptara Printed in China by South China Printing Co. All rights reserved. N o part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the Publisher. This book is sold subject to the conditions that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the Publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser. HarperCollins does not warrant that www.collinselt.com or any other website mentioned in this title will be provided uninterrupted, that any website will be error free, that defects will be corrected, or that the website or the server that makes it available are free of viruses or bugs. For full terms and conditions please refer to the site terms provided on the website. If any copyright holders have been omitted, please contact the Publisher who will make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. ( = You can trust Collins COBUILD The 4.5-billion-word Collins Corpus is the world’s largest database of the English language. It is updated every month and has been at the heart of Collins COBUILD publishing for over 20 years. All definitions provided in the glossary boxes in this book have been taken from the Collins COBUILD Advanced Dictionary1. About the author Els Van Geyte has been working at the English for International Students Unit at the University of Birmingham for over a decade, where she has been teaching English for Academic Purposes on presessional and insessional courses. She has authored two books in the Collins English for Exam s Series: Reading for IE L T S and Get Ready for IE L T S Reading. She has also published Foreign Language courses. Acknowledgements I’d like to thank the many people that have helped shape this book. First of all, I am grateful to the students I have taught and learnt from over the years. I’d like to mention the following people, who let me have examples of their writing: Ali Abdalla Elhouni, Badr Alhamdan, Becky Cai, Becky M cCarthy, Beyan Hariri, Guido M artinez, Ibrahim Fahad A1 Dossary, Jack M cCarthy, M aher Ghaneim N aw af, M eng Yao, Netje N ad a, Pham Huyen, Srwsht M. Amin, and Zhiyang Jiang. I would also like to say thank you to Josie Underhill and Susy Ridout who arranged for me to have some of the essays. Thank you also to everyone at HarperCollins for their support, and to Daniel Rolph, Verity Cole and Alison Silver. I am also grateful to the many people who have written books, articles and hand-outs about academic English that have helped me in my career and who ultimately inspired me to do the same. As always, my heartfelt thanks to John and Becky McCarthy, and everyone else who has been there for me throughout my own writing process. Contents Introduction Chapter 1 Essay purpose and instructions understand what academic writing is understand the purpose of essays * analyse essay titles Chapter 2 Reader expectation and essay structure plan your essay structure guide your reader with signposting and cohesion understand paragraph structure and how to connect paragraphs Chapter 3 Essay content and language explain the time frame, situation and certainty define key terms and concepts indicate the importance of the topic and organization of the essay use organizational patterns and visuals understand the language of conclusions Chapter 4 Formality, efficiency, modesty and clarity understand formality in register and style understand efficiency in register and style understand modesty in register and style understand clarity in register and style Chapter 5 Accuracy * improve accuracy choose tlye correct tense focus op/subject-verb agreement use punctuation correctly use articles correctly become aware of common errors Chapter 6 Research and analysis * develop research skills identify suitable sources develop note-making skills decide on level of detail and what is relevant develop critical thinking skills  Contents Chapter 7 Reading comprehension 76 enhance reading comprehension analyse sentence structure analyse noun phrases identify structural and argum entational signposts Chapter 8 Authority 90 develop a clear point of view state your opinion use ‘I’, ‘w e’ and other personal pronouns appropriately evaluate the strength of your own arguments Chapter 9 Integrity 100 acknowledge the ideas of others know when to cite know whether to quote or paraphrase use citing and referencing techniques understand plagiarism better avoid plagiarism Chapter 10 Paraphrasing 114 use a technique to paraphrase accurately use paraphrases to show own opinion integrate paraphrases gram matically use paraphrases to summarize Chapter 11 Essay process and presentation 132 the stages in the essay writing process time management * presentation other types of academic writing Appendices Appendix 1 - Essay examples: Taking your writing up to the next level 148 Appendix 2 - Responding to m arking criteria and feedback 158 Appendix 3 - Useful phrases 161 Glossary d POWERED BY COBUILD 165 Answer key 172 Introduction Collins Academic Skills Series: Writing will build on your existing writing skids to enable you to produce successful academic essays. Designed to be used on a self-study basis to support English for Academic F imposes or study skills courses, it is intended for students on pre-sessional or Foundation courses as well as for first year undergraduate students. The book has eleven chapters which focus on helping you understand what is expected of you at university. It will help you with research, planning, organization, grammar, paraphrasing and much more. It will make you think about: the writing purpose (Chapter 1) the expectations of the academic reader (Chapters 2 and 4) content and research (Chapters 3 and 6) academic principles (Chapters 4, 5, 8 and 9) language points (Chapters 3, 5, 7 and 10) the writing process from start to finish (Chapter 11) At the back of the book you will find: example essays: a short essay and a complete university essay, with comments on their strengths, weaknesses and differences advice on how to respond to m arking criteria and assignment feedback a glossary of key terms a comprehensive answer key. Chapter structure Each chapter includes: Aims - These set out the skills covered in the chapter. A self-evaluation quiz - By doing this you are able to identify what you already know on the subject of the chapter and what you need to learn. Inform ation on academic expectations and guidelines on how to develop academic skills - These sections will help you understand university practices and expectations so you know what is required. Practical exercises - These help you develop the skills to succeed at university. You can check your answers at the back of the book. Tips - Key points are highlighted for easy reference and provide useful revision summaries for the busy student. G lossary - Difficult words are glossed in boxes next to where the text appears in the chapter. There is also a comprehensive glossary at the back o f the book. Remember section - This is a summary of key points for revision and easy reference.  Introduction Authentic academ ic texts The book uses excerpts from academic essays, written by students who study a variety of subjects, so that you can apply what you learn to your own academic context. Glossary boxes d POWERED BY COBUiLD Where we feel that a word or phrase is difficult to understand, we have glossed this word or phrase. All definitions provided in the glossary boxes have been taken from the Collins C O B U IL D Advanced Dictionary. At the end of the book there is a full alphabetical list of the m ost difficult words from the book for your reference. Using Writing You can either work through the chapters from Chapter 1 to Chapter 11 or you can choose the chapters and topics that are most useful to you. The Contents page will help in your selection. Study tips Each chapter will probably take between three and four hours. Take regular breaks and do not try to study for too long. Thirty to sixty minutes is a sensible study period. Regular study is better than occasional intensive study. R ead the chapter through first to get an overview without doing any exercises. This will help you see what you want to focus on. * Try the exercises before checking the Answer key. Be an active learner. When writing your own essays, refer back to the appropriate sections and exercises in the book. If possible, ask a more experienced writer to give you feedback on your essay drafts. All university departments are different. Use the inform ation in the book as a guide to investigating your own university department. Read carefully any information you receive from your department about what and how to write. D on’t think of an essay as a finished product, but as a learning process. It is an opportunity to show that you can find out information about a subject, develop your own ideas about it, organize your thoughts and communicate your understanding to others. D on’t rush this process, but find out what works best for you. Adapt the suggestions in this book to suit your learning style and context. With practice, writing will become easier, and your confidence will grow so that you can show your tutors your true ability and potential. We wish you every success in your academic career. Other titles Also available in the Collins Academic Skills Series: Research, Lectures, Num bers, Presenting, and Group Work. 7 1 Essay purpose and instructions A im S / understand w hat academ ic / analyse essay titles writing is / understand the purpose o f essays © Quiz Self-evaluation For each statement below, circle the w ord which is true for you. 1 I understand w hat academ ic writing is. agree disagree | not sure 2 I understand the purpose of essays. agree disagree 1 not sure 3 I know the academ ic m eaning of instruction w ords in essays. agree disagree | not sure 4 I can find key w ords in essay titles to help me understand agree disagree | not sure what I am expected to write. 5 I can analyse the structure of an essay question to give a full agree disagree | not sure answer and include the right inform ation. 6 I know who to go to at my university if I need advice about disagree | not sure agree an essay. TlP / When you start your degree, you will come across a lot o f new words which are specific to your new environment but everybody seems to think you already understand them. D on’t worry about this, but look them up as soon as possible. In this book, the words are explained in the glossary boxes and they are all in the glossary at the back.  1 Essay purpose and instructions What is academ ic writing? Glossary Academic writing is writing which is done by scholars (students or academics) for other scholars to read. It can take many forms: journal d isse r ta tio n articles, textbooks, dissertations, group project reports, etc. Although (dissertations) N-COUNT students are increasingly being asked to write different types of academic A dissertation text, the essay still remains the m ost popular type of assignment. is a long formal piece of writing Essays are written by students and are likely to be read by one person on a particular only: their tutor. The essay can be set as a coursework assignment to subject, especially assess a student’s understanding of a module, or as an exam question. for a university degree. For more information on some other types of academic writing, see Chapter 11. The purpose of essays Glossary Essays are a common form of assessm ent, for example in disciplines such as Business, International Relations, Law, Elistory, Geography, Theology, d isc ip lin e Communication Studies, Education and Economics. (disciplines) N -C O U N T There are many reasons why essays are still the m ost popular type of A discipline is a particular area of assignment. One of them is that they ask students to demonstrate more study, especially than just knowledge. To demonstrate the purpose of essays, let’s have a subject of a look at the difference between an ordinary question and an essay study in a college question. or university. Ordinary question: Why did William o f Norm andy win the Battle o f H astin gsi Essay question: William o f N orm andy’s victory at the Battle o f H astings has often been attributed to his large and well-prepared army. However, without strategy and good fortune, he might well have lost the battle. D iscuss. -po The answer to the ordinary question could be a list of items, in no particular order of importance. The essay question directs the writer more: the student has to mention the size and the preparedness of the army, describe W illiam’s strategy and the fortunate circumstances, and decide how im portant these elements were for the victory. In order to come to a conclusion about this, the writer has to do research. This is 9 W riting Glossary indicated in the language: in the first sentence ‘has often been attributed to ’ tells the student that there are a lot of sources which she should look a ttr ib u te to at to explain this point of view, and ‘However’ in the second sentence (attributes to, attributing to, suggests that there is also evidence available for a contrasting opinion. attributed to) The word ‘D iscuss’ m akes it clear that there are different points to be V E RB made, which should be mentioned and commented on, so that the writer If you attribute can make a decision about which side she is on. something to an event or Clearly, a finished essay demonstrates more than just the knowledge situation, you think that it students were taught about a subject. The writers will have: was caused by that event or found out much more than what they were taught in lectures and situation, seminars se m in a r (seminars) weighed up the evidence about different points of view N -C O U N T A seminar is a developed thehyown point of view class at a college or university increased their knowledge and their depth of understanding in which the teacher and a ! trained their memory to remember the important facts small group of students discuss * undertaken activities that prepare them for their future profession. a topic. c o n v e n tio n By writing the information down in essay form, they will have: (conventions) N -C O U N T t/ * organized their thoughts Academic conventions V" * practised and improved their ability to communicate in writing are traditional methods or styles y* shown awareness of the reader, of academic conventions and the way of academic others write in their discipline. writing. If you plan your time so that you can read up on a topic, think critically about it, follow the essay instructions, and express your view clearly in a well-organized text, you deserve a good grade. For more information on all these aspects, see later chapters. Analysing essay titles Although we called the instructions in the example essay question a question, there w as no question mark. The ‘questions’ are really titles. You will need to put the full title on your first page; don’t be tempted to summarize the question and write your own title.  1 Essay purpose and instructions Your tutor may give you a long essay title, which needs to be broken down into smaller parts before it can be addressed. All essay questions will include instruction w ords, such as ‘discuss’. For international students, these words can be particularly tricky. If you look them up in a dictionary, you may find a large number of meanings that do not always correspond exactly to the more specific meaning in the academic context, which is also why translations into other languages you may speak are unlikely to help. For example, this is a dictionary definition o f ‘discuss’: 1 to have a conversation about; consider by talking over; debate 2 to treat (a subject) in speech or writing => the first three volumes discuss basic principles (Source: Collins C O B U IL D A dvanced Dictionary, 2008) Both definitions suggest that ‘discuss’ means ‘talk (or write) about’. However, in an academic context ‘discuss’ often means something more specific: in order to discuss, you need to refer to different aspects of a topic, look at the benefits and draw backs of different points of view, and give your own conclusion. © Exercise 1 In which of these essay questions does ‘discuss’ mean ‘write about, describe’, and in which does it mean more? Put a tick in the correct column. = write about, = give different points of describe view (and your opinion) 1 Parliam ent today is less effective than it has evey i s ' been. D iscuss. \M i t 2 D iscuss the geological history and likely m ethod S ' o f form ation of the Lewisian rocks. 3 D iscuss the circum stances that can lead to a dram atic change in the use of technology. S 4 ‘Current stem cell technology is sufficiently is advanced for use in medicine.’ Discuss. 11  W riting r " \ Exercise 2 In the table below, match the instruction words in the centre column with the correct academic meanings on the left. Some of the first and/or second dictionary definitions of the instruction words on the right may help you find their academic meaning. ! A cadem ic meaning Instruction w ord j D ictionary definition ! a state similarities and differences j 1 show j to m ake, be, or become visible or j : and draw conclusions about them, i noticeable 1 b point out w eaknesses and strong A x 2 com pare to regard something as similar, j points -— / I to exam ine in order to observe similarities or differences 1 C dem onstrate with supporting / j 3 justify to prove to be just, valid or reasonable j ! evidence j / j i.................................. ]..................................... ; | d decide on the value or 4 consider to think carefully about a problem or j im portance of a topic by giving i ! decision ; reasons or evidence — ;U — i e give inform ation but without... —f]^ s / c r it ic iz e to judge (something) with disapproval, to j / // :: evaluate (study) or analyse (something) j going into details " \ i1 // j f give support for an argument 6 assess - j to judge the worth, im portance, etc. of, j \J ; to evaluate j | g briefly and clearly describe the \! 7 indicate I to point out or show j j m ain points _ j h give your views about a topic j 8 analyse i to break down into com ponents or i i i essential features, to exam ine in detail j ; / j in order to discover m eaning, essential j ; features j j i give detailed reasons or say why j i 9 outline1' 1 to give the m ain features or general idea j j something is the case. to be used. If a com pany is sm all, it could prefer F o r m ore in fo r m a t io n o n to use ‘w ord of m outh’, which m ay constitute c it in g , see chapter^. indirect discrim ination but is much faster and cheaper (Dickens, 2005). As the priority o f any The s t u d e n t Mas -presented This Idiom, c o u ld be co n sid ered too in f o r m a l fo r organization is profit (N oon, 2 0 1 0 ), implementing the essay well: the lliA.es a ll sta rt at the saiAte poliA,t, aiA.d a n essay. The studemt could -long-term strategies is often put on the back burner the paragraphs are v is u a l l y have w ritte n : when m anagers have to deal with m ore urgent d is t in g u is h e d w ith a space. A s the p rio rity o f a my issues, such as com petition. For m ore in fo r m a t io n o n o rg a n iz a t io n is profit (Noom, presentation, see chapter ±±. 2.0 10 ), m ore im p o rta n c e Is Thirdly, equality and diversity are inherently u s u a l l y g iv e n to urgemt Issues such as competition., problem atic to som e extent. Foster and H arris ra t h e rt h a n t o im p le m e n t in g (2005) argue that not only is a diverse team lo n g -t e rm strategies. difficult to m anage but this also takes a toll on For m ore in f o r m a t io n o n team coordination. Every m ember differs in fo r m a lit y , see chapter^. Notice how the w riter maYzes terms of gender, age, ethnicity, schooling or skills; \ a poliA.t a n d -provides evid ence hence, it is hard to reach a com m on consensus a n d a n e xp la n a tio n. For m ore and conflict m ay result. In addition, positive in fo r m a t io n o n the poliA-t- evldeiA.ce-e*pla i/uatloiA. pattern., discrimination, which is often seen as a way to see chapter £>. m anage diversity, can lead to resentment from co­ workers. For instance, parents have a right to take time off for childcare whilst those without children do not have that right, even if they have to care for elderly relatives. 154  Appendix 1 - Taking your writing up to the next level: Example essays Negative comments Positive comments Notice how th is -paragraph Because o f these three reasons, discrim ination Is lin k e d n ic e ly to the There should re a lly be a continues to be evident in the w orkforce. In previous, paragraph. F o r m ore paragraph breate here, to the following section, two key initiatives are in fo r m a t io n o n c o n n e c tin g m a k e It also v is u a lly paragraphs, see C-hapter 2.. clear that a new section Is ^considered: policies and positive action (N oon, starting. 2010). Policies are undoubtedly essential in guiding For m ore in fo r m a t io n m anagers in decision-m aking and taking action. about the v is u a l aspects o f pa ragra ph in g, see Chapters Recently, m any policies have been introduced in 2 a n d ±±. the U K, for instance the D isability Discrim ination Act (1995), The Em ploym ent Equality (Religion and Belief) R egulations (2003), and The Equality Act (2006). A lso, m any organizations have their own form al policies. In order to ensure policy im plem entation, however, positive action is necessary, for exam ple a recruitment advertisement in m agazines aimed at gay people or a training program m e for older employees. Despite the presence of policies and positive action, there has been limited success in achieving equality and diversity. In the last section, this essay considers why this is so. The first reason is the lack o f intervention from pivotal actors. Dickens (1999) argues that although m anagers play the m ost crucial part, the roles o f government and trade unions should not be neglected. Firstly, state intervention by legal regulation (law and policies) can contribute greatly to setting equality standards to underpin practices, regulate employer decision-m aking and protect employees who are discriminated against by forcing their com panies to com pensate them. Another actor is the trade unions, who represent employees and are responsible for protecting employee rights through collective bargaining. By negotiating with m anagers about certain interests or concerns of employees, collective bargaining could provide a better m atch between the needs o f the com pany and employees, particularly disadvantaged groups such as ethnic minorities and women. W hereas D ean and L iff (2010) focus on the im portance of these industrial relations actors, Foster and H arris (2005) em phasize the organizational context in which both m anagers and external environments influence diversity practices. They give an exam ple o f a store in Leicester which tried to recruit A sian people but no one applied because they said that it w as dom inated by white people. 155  W riting Negative comments Positive comments Another issue is that the policies o f m any organizations are ‘empty shells’ (H oque and N o on , The a u th o r's n a m e ts 2 004). There is a large gap between policies, which misspelled..^are just declarations, and action (Dickens, 2005). A ccording to D icken (2005), 2 7 % of com pany T h is s h o u ld sa y ‘com pan les'. rwith policies had not implemented them. In F o r m ore In f o rm a t io n o n the addition, m any m anagers treat everyone the same Im p o rta n ce o f a c c u ra c y , see without realizing that they differ in m any w ays, Chapter s. and those differences need to be valued to improve individual potential (Foster and H arris, 2005). To sum up, striving for equality and diversity N otice how the s t u d e n t should be an im portant consideration for d em o n stra te s her aw areness o f w h a t her t u t o r waists: she organizations. If this is done well, it will be has clearly g iv e n a n a n sw e r beneficial to both organizations and employees to the essay q u e s t io n here. in terms o f productivity and efficiency. However, F o r m ore In f o rm a t io n about this is difficult to achieve for a num ber of a n a ly s in g essay title s , see chapter ±. reasons, including deep-rooted prejudice, m anagerial priorities and the side-effects of positive discrim ination. There are two possible paths tow ards equality and diversity: policies and The la s t se n ten ce fo cu se s o n positive action. However, w ithout the efforts of possible s o lu t io n s , a n d c a n key protagonists such as the government, trade be regarded as the overall unions and em ployees, any initiatives are likely to c o n c lu s io n. The othertwo have limited success. Other obstacles are a lack of parts o f c o n c lu s io n s are also I n this pa ra grap h : m anagerial goodw ill and com pany culture. In order s u m m a rie s o f the m a in Ideas to eradicate disadvantage, a number of factors need-* a n d evidence. to be com bined: the social justice approach, the F o r m ore In f o rm a t io n o n essay stru c tu re , see business approach, national legislation and local chapter 2. policies and action. For In fo rm a tio n abou± the la n g u a g e u sed I n c o n c lu s io n s , see ch a p te rs. 156  Appendix 1 - Taking your writing up to the next level: Example essays N egative comments R E F E R E N C E L IS T Positive comments the reference lis t Is started on C assell, C., ‘M anaging Diversity’, in T. R edm an a kvew page, as It show.ld be. and A. W ilkinson, Contem porary H um an Resource A l l the kvflku.es kuekvtlokved lu. M anagem ent (3rd edn., London: Prentice H all, the te*t Are represented I n the reference lis t And vice versa. 2 006), 3 4 3 -3 6 0. The stu.dent seekws to hflve D ean, D. and Liff, S., ‘Equality and diversity: The followed her u n iv e rs ity 's sty le g uid e flnd hns used ultimate industrial relations concern’, in T. Colling Id e ntlcfll pfltterns fo r the and M. Terry, Industrial R elations (O xford: Wiley- sflkue types o f sources. Blackwell, 2 010), 4 2 2 -4 4 6. A l l the s o u rce s she hfls used are flcfldem-lc sources. E>lcteens And Lindfl. This rDickens and Linda, ‘Beyond the business case: For kuore Inforkufltlon on academ ic sou rces, see should Sfly: I>lckenS, A three-pronged approach to equality action’, in chapter Q>. H um an Resource M anagem ent Jou rn al (1999), F o r kuore Inforkufltlon on 9 ( 1 ), 9-1 9. reference lists, see Chapter^. Dickens, L., ‘W alking the talk? Equality and diversity in em ploym ent’, in S. Bach, M anaging H um an Resources (O xford: Blackwell, 2 005), htw.rn.flkv resource. 1 7 8 -203. kwflnflgekuentjournfll... The whole title needs to be Foster, C. and H arris, L., ‘Easy to say, difficult to capitalized: htw.ku.flkv Resource do: diversity m anagem ent in retail’, in H um an M anagem entJ o u r w A kresource m anagem ent Jou rn al (2005), 15 (3), 4 -1 7. Heery, E. and N oon, M., A D ictionary o f H um an Resource M anagem ent (O xford: O xford University Press, 2001). H oque, K. and N o on , M., ‘Equal Opportunities Policy and Practice in Britain: Evaluating the ‘em pty shell’ hypothesis’, in Work, Em ploym ent and Society (2004), 18 (3), 4 8 1 -5 0 6. Jflkvet.Skulthson And J a n e t Smithson and Elizabeth H. Stokoe, ‘Gender, Elizabeth ht. stoteoe. The f ir s t Work and O rganization’, in D iscourses o f Work- nflkwes o f the Authors should L ife Balance: N egotiating ‘G enderblind’ Terms in kvot be Included:.SkwlthS O n , J. flkvd S.to'Rjot, B. O rganizations (2005), 12 (2), 1 4 7 -1 6 8. Kirton, G. and Greene, A.,The D ynam ics o f M anaging Diversity: A Critical A pproach (O xford: Butterworth-Heinem ann, 2000). N o on , M., ‘M anaging equality and diversity’, in J. Beardwell and T. Claydon, H um an R esource M anagem ent: A Contem porary A pproach (London: Pearson, 2 010), 1 9 6 -2 2 9. Shen, J., Chanda, A., D ’N etto, B. and M onga, M., ‘M anaging diversity through hum an resource m anagem ent: an international perspective and conceptual fram ew ork’, in The International Jou rn al o f H um an Resource M anagem ent, (2009), 20 (2), 2 3 5 -2 5 1. 157  W riting A ppendix 2 - R esp o n d in g to m arking criteria and fe e d b a ck When you receive your essay title, you are often given inform ation about how you should deal with it, for exam ple ‘Use a variety o f sources’, ‘Refer to your lecture notes’, ‘Include at least three theories’. You need to follow these instructions carefully, as your m ark will depend on your ability to do so. It is also im portant to read or print off any other inform ation provided by your departm ent. This could cover presentation requirements, referencing system s, etc. and m ay be found online (via the university website or their virtual learning environment) or in a han dbook or other document. You m ay also be given m arking criteria, which state w hat the m arker will be looking for in your work. This m ay include w ording such as ‘evidence o f reading’, ‘the ability to incorporate the ideas of others’, ‘a dem onstration of know ledge’, ‘an ability to apply know ledge’, ‘the ability to consider and discuss different points o f view’, etc. Again, keep this in mind while you are putting your essay together. When you have finished your first draft you need to double check that there is evidence of these skills in the essay. Unfortunately, m any students find it difficult to understand w hat is m eant by some of these criteria. You will become better at this through practice, but you can speed up this process by exam ining the feedback you get on your essays, both the positive and the negative com m ents. As we saw in Chapter 11, analysing essay feedback can be considered a stage of the essay writing process. It needs to be seen as guidance for your next essay. H ave a look at the following paragraph, taken from an essay on relationship and transactional marketing. L ook at the lecturer’s notes in the m argin. Before you read on, consider w hat the student can do to understand w hat is w rong in this essay and w hat he should do before writing his next one. Relationship m arketing can be defined as ‘attracting new custom ers, obtaining and m aintaining the relationships between original custom ers and com panies’ (J.A.F. N icholls, 2000). This strategy focuses (l) referenceformat on keeping in touch with custom ers, especially the loyal custom ers, rather than concentrating on individual sales. G ronroon’s (1996) definition of relationship (z) is this the author’s name? m arketing strategy is ‘to build, m aintain and proceed (3) page number? exact quote? the relationships between custom ers and relative shareholders, while to terminate collaboration when it (4) is this the only defnition? is necessary’. It can be seen that relationship m arketing is based on the exchange and prom ise between (5) good insight, but could be developedfurther custom ers and firms. This strategy incorporates the 4C s m arketing m ix and has long-term benefits. (6) explain The student did not follow referencing conventions: he m isspelled an author’s nam e, gave initials in citation, m ay have m isquoted an author and did not include a page reference for his quote. Although com ments (1) and (3) do not say exactly w hat is wrong, the student should have m ore inform ation that he can consult, possibly online, in the form of his departm ent’s guidelines for academ ic writing. If this does not exist then he w ould have to m ake an appointm ent to see his tutor. Com m ent (4) suggests that there are m ore definitions, which m eans that the student should have read more and not stopped his research as soon as he found one definition. A library search on the topic of ‘relationship m arketing’ w ould have shown m ore than one source. 158  Appendix 2 - Responding to marking criteria and feedback Com m ent (5) includes positive feedback. N ex t time, the student should therefore try to give more com ments about the quotes that he uses. The lecturer seems to appreciate it when the student show s his personal understanding of the definition, and w ants him to keep adding insights like this and developing them further. Com m ent (6) suggests that there is m ore to say abou t the 4 C s, and that ‘long-term benefits’ needs an explanation too. N o w look at som e com ments taken from the feedback that the lecturer provided at the end of the essay. N otice how m any of the com ments can actually be linked to w hat the lecturer had put in the m argin above. They have been numbered below to m ake it easier for you to find them. You dem onstrated that you understood (5) the concepts related to relationship m arketing and transactional m arketing, but this could have been explored in m ore depth (5), by analysing and synthesizing a number o f different au thors’ opinions (4) and draw ing your own conclusions (5). M ake sure you alw ays back up your statements and opinions with clarifications or evidence (6), as these will strengthen your arguments. Unfortunately, you did not follow referencing conventions (1, 2, 3), which is not acceptable at this stage. Perhaps in part 2 you could have given m ore exam ples o f how transactional m arketing has been beneficial to the com panies you mention. In short, don ’t glance over the com m ents that have been put on your essay and then put them away. Instead, spend time on really trying to understand them. It can be painful to read the com ments if your results are not what you had hoped for, but it is time well spent if it can help you learn from your m istakes. H ave a look at a p aragraph written by a Social Policy student. R ead the com ments that the tutor m ade and decide whether these are positive, neutral or negative com ments. Before you read on, think about how im portant it is to avoid sim ilar issues in the next essay. One o f Ponzini and R o ssi’s (2010) approaches (l) do they have another approach? is to critically discuss Florida’s theory and the problem s caused by the application o f his theory to urban policy. They explain how an unclear theory or its incorrect interpretation by m isunderstood politicians could cause ( l) are thepoliticians misunderstood7 social-spatial injustice. This is because city (3) it mijht have been a jo o d idea to have explained the link development is related to the exchange between politicians andpolicy models o f policy m odels aiming to ensure the com prehensiveness and role of each city in the (4) comprehensiveness? w orld (Sassen, 1994). Ponzini and R ossi look at specific cities and specifically their urban (5) you could havejiven some examples of cities here and spatial restructure and policies. However, it could be argued that looking at individual cases m ay not be appropriate, due to the ((,) This = ? cities’ diversity. This w ould m ean applying a multi-case study for finding a paradigm via (7) perhapsyou could have referred here to some later studies exem plary sam ples (G ibson and Kong, 2005). by the same authors 159  W riting In general, when a lecturer uses language such as ‘perhaps you could have’, ‘it might have been a good idea to ’, or asks questions, they are using polite language to tell you what you should have done. D on’t ignore comments like these: they are not about possibilities or queries, but tell you what you should have done to get a better mark. D o not treat any comments as ‘neutral’ comments or small points. Instead, think about the underlying issues and take them into consideration for your next essay. Let’s have a look at the specific examples. Com m ent (1) suggests that there is no other approach, and that the student should have written ‘Ponzini and R o ssi’s (2010) approach is... ’, in which case the underlying problem is a lack o f clarity in the language. The other possibility is that the problem is with setting up thb^wrong reader expectation: the reader expects to hear w hat the other approaches are, but the student never picks up that point in the assignment. Com m ent (2) is not a real question: the tutor know s that the politicians are not m isunderstood: the politicians m isunderstand the policy and it is the policy that is m isunderstood. The question points out to the student that there is a language problem. In (3), (5) and (7) polite language is being used to say that the student should have done something (explain, give exam ples, include m ore studies). In other w ords, the student has not researched deeply or widely enough, understood enough o f the research or selected the right inform ation. Comments (4) and (6) can be read as requests for clarification. It can be frustrating for students to see question m arks in their work without further explanation, but usually it just means that the meaning of a phrase or sentence has not been made clear enough. It is im portant for the writer to put themselves in the shoes o f the reader, to see if what has been written m akes sense. Here ‘comprehensiveness’ is a concept that needs further explanation in the context of cities, and ‘this’ does not seem to relate to anything in the previous sentence. To sum up, you probably receive m ore inform ation than you realize abou t how you can achieve higher grades. The trick is to pay careful attention. If, despite your efforts, you still really don’t understand specific criteria or feedback, don’t be afraid to say so and ask your lecturer to explain verbally. Some final words from the author This book has given you a lot of advice about the different requirements o f essay writing, and you m ay feel that there is so much that it is not possible for you to follow it all. Luckily, that is not necessary. Instead of worrying about all the guidelines, focus on the bigger picture using the following checklist: D oes the essay answer the question? * Will my reader understand w hat I am trying to do and say? Is it clear w hat my opinion is? Is it clear where I have given the opinion o f others? H ave I expressed m yself clearly, formally, efficiently,m odestly and accurately? H ave I follow ed the other academ ic conventions? It is also worth remembering that lecturers tend to start you o ff with the easier essays, that there is support available from individuals and departm ents at your institution, and that nobody expects you to get everything right from the start. Take the results from your first essay as a starting point and, m ost importantly, study the feedback to help you improve. Be proud o f your hard w ork, and o f every pass, merit and distinction you receive. E ls Van Geyte 160 A ppendix 3 - U seful phrases Useful phrases introduced throughout the book are reproduced here for easy reference. Linkers Sequencing Firstly,... / Secon d ly ,... First of all,... F in ally ,... Adding ideas In addition,... A ls o ,... * Furtherm ore,... M o re o v e r,... C ontrasting ideas On the one hand,... H o w ev er,... On the other hand,... Although... In contrast,... Whilst Talking about results T h erefo re,... As a consequence,... / Consequently, Talking about causes Due to... A s a consequence of... Referring back to a previous point * This analysis (suggests t h a t...) This approach (indicates t h a t...) This concept (illustrates that...) This context (shows t h a t...) These data (prove that...) This definition (has been used to...) These factors (need to be taken into account when...) This interpretation (is influenced by...) * This period (was characterized by...) This process (can be seen in...) This response (was sum m arized by...)  W riting * This sector (was restructured in...) This theory (was widely debated by...) These guiding principles (throw light on...) Another argum ent (in favour o f the privatization...) Giving definitions (Synthesis) is (the process o f com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole). (Synthesis) is comrponly defined as (the process of com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole). (Synthesis) is generally understood to refer to (the process of com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole). (Synthesis) can be described as (the process o f com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole). (The process o f com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole) is called (synthesis). (The process o f com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole) is known as (synthesis). (The process o f com bining objects or ideas into a com plex whole) is referred to as (synthes Using definitions For the purposes of this essay, I will be using (Kotler’s definition of societal m arketing), because of (its focus on the organization’s task to meet the need...) Although m any different definitions (of marketing) have been suggested (over the years), I will be using (the one by Kotler (1994), because of...) Throughout this essay, I will be using the w ord (‘cognitive’ ) to refer to (the different types o f intellectual behaviour). (In this essay), the term (‘reliability’ ) is used to m ean... Indicating the im portance of the topic « (One of) the m ost significant (stages in a child’s development) is... (One of) the m ost im portant (factors to take into consideration when...) is... (One of) the m ost essential (conditions for the germ ination o f orchidea) is... (Some of) the m ost m em orable aspects (of the documentary) were... Intensifying adjectives an im portant part a com m on problem a key role/factor an increasing need/concern * a great/m ajor problem heightened awareness a a central area of rapid development 162  Appendix 3 - Useful phrases a dram atic increase * a serious effect/impact on * renewed/unprecedented interest increasing concern Introducing the aim and the organization of the essay This essay will... This report attem pts to (examine whether...) This case study hopes to (determine whether...) The aim s o f this essay are to (determine whether...) This essay exam ines whether (the effects of exposure to...) This essay argues that (the effects o f exposure to...) In this essay I argue that (the historical influences of...) In this essay I will discuss (the origins o f...) * In this essay it will be argued that (the M iddle A ges were...) The language of conclusions This essay discussed (the economic factors that contributed to...) In this essay, I have argued (that globalization is not a recent phenomenon). This essay has explored (the causes o f the c o n flic t...). These findings suggest that (bees are nearing extinction). * The evidence seems to indicate that (prolonged bouts of laughter lead to...) A consequence o f this is that (Western lifestyles have become m ore fashionable). Counter-argum entation One study has em phasized the need for (a change in the w ay custody cases are...) So far there has been limited agreement only on (three of the proposed laws). Som e studies have challenged (this concept). There is continuing debate about the value o f (trialling this vaccine in...) * The literature shows some contradictory findings (in this area). C laim s the author makes There are several draw backs (involved in investing in...) * There is not enough reliable evidence that (ingesting valium results in...) 163  W riting These are the m ost dangerous substances (on the face of the earth, yet...) One of the m ost significant patterns is (also one of the easiest to disrupt). The use of ‘I’ and ‘we’ to indicate the writer’s stance M y concern is... M y definition... is based on M un son’s but com bines this with... Experim ents have been carried out by N elson and Smith (1993) and O jha and M azum der (2008). In our experim ent... We know that... has consequences... that are still apparent... today... As we have se e n ,... Quoting W ood (2011: 23) describes their textile industry as “ flourishing” , yet som e analysts are indicating that it is in decline. Paraphrasing W hereas W ood (2011) has a positive view of the current state of their textile industry, some analysts are indicating that it is in decline. Reporting verbs They discussed / exam ined (the potential problem s with this type o f test). The authors show / report (how technology is being used to engage students more). They suggest that / how (these d ata could be interpreted in different ways). * They suggest (a different interpretation of the data). It w as alleged that (the copyright for the im age w asn ’t cleared). They claim ed to have (informed their neighbours o f their intention). The head of education proposed (a set o f new m easures to guard against bullying). The report acknowledges that (the proposed building plot w as not suitable). * The research dem onstrates that (it is dependent on a low percentage o f im ports). The curator of the exhibition asserts that (M anet w as the founder of modernism). 164 G lossary C l P OWE R ED BY C OB UI L D Som e o f the m ore difficult w ords from the chapters are defined here in this Glossary. The definitions focus on the m eanings of the w ords in the context in which they appear in the text. Definitions are from C O B U ILD A dvanced Dictionary. Key ADJ adjective N -U N C O U N T uncount noun ADV adverb N-VAR variable noun AU X auxiliary verb NEG negative COLO UR colour w ord NUM number COM B com bining form ORD ordinal CONJ conjunction PASSIVE see V-PASSIVE C O N V E N T IO N convention PH R A SA L VERB phrasal verb DET determiner PH RA SE phrase EXCLA M exclam ation PR ED ET predeterminer F R A C T IO N fraction PR EFIX prefix L IN K see V-LIN K PREP preposition MODAL m odal verb PRON pronoun N -C O U N T count noun QUANT quantifier N -PLU RA L plural noun Q U EST question w ord N-PRO PER proper noun SU FFIX suffix N-PRO PER-PLURAL plural proper noun V ERB verb N -SIN G singular noun V-LINK link verb N -T IT L E title noun V-PASSIVE passive verb active (actives) n-count An active, active verb, or active form , is the form abbreviation (abbreviations) n-count of the verb which is used when the subject refers An abbreviation is a short form of a w ord or to a person or thing that does something. For phrase, m ade by leaving out som e of the letters or exam ple, in ‘I saw her yesterday’, the verb is in by using only the first letter o f each word. the active. accountable adj adverbial adj If you are accountable to som eone for something A dverbial m eans relating to adverbs or like an that you do, you are responsible for it and must adverb. be prepared to justify your actions to that person. accuracy n-uncount allocate (allocates, allocating, allocated) verb If one item or share of som ething is allocated to a The accuracy of inform ation or m easurements is particular person or for a particular purpose, it is their quality of being true or correct, even in given to that person or used for that purpose. sm all details. acronym (acronyms) n-count analogy (analogies) n-count If you m ake or draw an analogy between two things, An acronym is a w ord com posed o f the first letters you show that they are sim ilar in som e way. o f the w ords in a phrase, especially when this is used as a name. An exam ple o f an acronym is anatomically adv N A TO which is m ade up of the first letters o f the If the body o f a person or an anim al is anatom ically ‘N orth Atlantic Treaty O rganization’. large, it is physically or structurally large.  W riting anonymous adj bright (brighter, brightest) adj Something that is anonym ous does not reveal who If you describe a person or an anim al as bright, you you are. m ean that they are quick at learning things. anti-discrimination adj c An anti-discrim ination action is an action that show s that you are opposed to the practice of caption (captions) n-count treating one person or group of people less fairly A caption is the w ords printed underneath or or less well than other people or groups. above a picture or table which explain w hat it is about. appendix (appendices) n-count An appendix to a book or essay is extra catwalk( catw alks) n-count inform ation that is placed after the end o f the A t a fashion show, the catw alk is a narrow platform m ain text. that m odels w alk along to display clothes. argument (arguments) n-var cautious adj An argum ent is a statement or set of statem ents that If you describe som eone’s attitude, language, or you use in order to try to convince people that reaction as cautious, you m ean that it is limited your opinion about som ething is correct. or careful. assert (asserts, asserting, asserted) verb charity (charities) n-count If som eone asserts a fact or belief, they state it A charity is an organization which raises m oney in firmly. order to help people who are ill, disabled, or very poor. assignment (assignments) n-count An assignm ent is a task or piece o f w ork that you chronological adj are given to do, especially as part o f your job or If things are described or shown in chronological studies. order, they are described or shown in the order in which they happened. attribute to (attributes to, attributing to, attributed to) VERB cite (cites, citing, cited) verb If you attribute som ething to an event or situation, If you cite som ething, you quote it or mention it, you think that it w as caused by that event or especially as an exam ple or p roof of w hat you situation. are saying. authoritative adj clarity n-uncount Som eone or som ething that is authoritative has a The clarity o f som ething such as a book or lot of knowledge o f a particular subject. argum ent is its quality o f being well explained and easy to understand. authority n-uncount If som eone speaks or writes with authority, people classify (classifies, classifying, classified) verb respect and take notice of w hat they say because To classify things m eans to divide them into groups they have special knowledge of a subject. or types so that things with sim ilar characteristics are in the sam e group. b cohesion n-uncount balanced adj If you write with cohesion, you use language that A balanced report, book, or other document show s that the different aspects of your writing takes into account all the different opinions on relate to each other, fit together well, and form a som ething and presents inform ation in a fair and united whole. reasonable way. collaborative writing n-uncount blues N-PLURAL Collaborative writing is writing done by tw o or If you have got the blues, you feel depressed. m ore people or groups w orking together. 166  Glossary com pile (compiles, com piling, compiled) v e rb deliberate adj When you com pile something such as a report, If you do som ething that is deliberate, you planned book, or table, you produce it by collecting and or decided to do it beforehand, and so it happens putting together m any pieces of inform ation. on purpose rather than by chance. complement (complements) n-count demonstrative adjective (dem onstrative adjectives) The complement o f a link verb is an adjective group n -count or noun group which com es after the verb and D em onstrative adjectives are the w ords ‘this’, ‘th at’, describes or identifies the subject. For exam ple, ‘these’, and ‘those’. in the sentence ‘They felt very tired’, ‘very tired’ is the complement. In ‘They were students’, dense (denser, densest) adj If a text or sentence is dense, it contains a lot of ‘students’ is the complement. inform ation in a sm all or short space. constitute (constitutes, constituting, constituted) V-LINK design specification (design specifications) n -count If som ething constitutes a particular thing, it can be A design specification is a clearly stated requirement regarded as being that thing. about the necessary features in the design of context (contexts) n-var something. The context of a w ord, sentence, or text consists of the w ords, sentences, or text before and after it determiner (determiners) n-count A determiner is a w ord which is used at the which help to m ake its m eaning clear. beginning of a noun group to indicate, for convention (conventions) n-count exam ple, which thing you are referring to or Academic conventions are traditional m ethods or whether you are referring to one thing or several. styles of academ ic writing. C om m on English determiners are ‘a ’, ‘the’, ‘som e’, ‘this’, and ‘each’. convey (conveys, conveying, conveyed) verb.To convey inform ation or feelings m eans to cause discipline (disciplines) n-count them to be known or understood by someone. A discipline is a particular area o f study, especially a subject o f study in a college or university. corporate governance n-uncount C orporate governance is the w ay in which a dissertation (dissertations) n-count business corporation is m anaged. A dissertation is a long form al piece of writing on a particular subject, especially for a university creditor (creditors) n-count degree. Your creditors are the people who you owe money to. distinguish (distinguishes, distinguishing, distinguished) verb criteria (criterion) n - p l u r a l If you distinguish one thing from another or Criteria are factors on which you decide or judge distinguish between tw o things, you show, see, or something. understand how they are different. critique (critiques) n-count drawback (draw backs) n-count A critique is a written exam ination and judgm ent of A draw back is an aspect of som ething or som eone a situation or of a person’s w ork or ideas. that m akes them less acceptable than they would otherwise be. d defining relative clause (defining relative clauses) dualist adj If a person or their w ay of thinking is dualist, they n -count believe that something has tw o m ain parts or A defining relative clause is a subordinate clause aspects. which gives inform ation about a person or thing, explaining or specifying which person or thing you are talking about.  W riting e g efficiency n-uncount genre (genres) n-count Efficiency is the quality of being able to do a task A genre is a particular type o f literature, painting, successfully, without repetition or w asting time or music, film, or other art form which people energy. consider as a class because it has special characteristics. ethical adj Ethical m eans relating to beliefs about right and geological adj wrong. G eological m eans relating to geology. exemplify (exemplifies, exem plifying, exemplified) get into (gets into, getting into, got into) phrasal VERB VERB If you exem plify something you are saying or If you get into a particular kind of w ork or activity, writing, you give an exam ple to m ake it clearer. you m anage to become involved in it. expulsion (expulsions) n-var guild (guilds) n-count Expulsion is when som eone is forced to leave a A guild is an organization of people w ho do the school, university, or organization. sam e job or activity. f i fatigue n-uncount immune response (immune responses) Fatigue in m etal or w ood is a w eakness in it that is n -count caused by repeated stress. Fatigue can cause the Your immune response is the reaction of your body metal or w ood to break. to the presence of substances causing disease or infection. feminist empiricismn-uncount Feminist em piricism is the belief that people should immunity n-uncount rely on practical experience and experim ents, If you talk about som eone’s immunity to a rather than theories, as a basis for knowledge, particular disease, you m ean that they cannot be and that these should not favour or be concerned affected by it. with one gender m ore than the other. indent (indents) n-count figure (figures) n-count A n indent is the space at the beginning o f a line of In books, journal articles, and essays, the diagram s w riting when it starts further aw ay from the edge which help to show or explain inform ation are o f the paper than all the other lines. referred to as figures. initiative (initiatives) n-count flow chart (flow charts) n-count An initiative is an im portant act or statement that is A flow chart or a flow diagram is a diagram which intended to solve a problem. represents the sequence o f actions in a particular process or activity. innovation n-uncount Innovation is the introduction o f new ideas, footnote (footnotes) n -count m ethods, or things. A footnote is a note at the bottom of a page in a book which provides more detailed information inspiration n-uncount Inspiration is a feeling of enthusiasm you get from about something that is mentioned on that page. som eone or something, which gives you new and f o r m a l i t y n -u n c o u n t creative ideas. If you talk about the form ality o f a person’s language or writing style, you m ean that they are integrate (integrates, integrating, integrated) verb If you integrate one thing with another, or one thing using extremely form al academ ic language. integrates with another, the two things become further (furthers, furthering, furthered) verb closely linked or form part of a whole idea or If you further something, you help it to progress, to system. You can also say that two things be successful, or to be achieved. integrate. 168  Glossary integrity n-uncount carry out particular actions in order to achieve a If you have integrity in academ ic writing, you are particular result. honest about w hat is your point of view and w hat is the point of view of other people. metaphor (metaphors) n-var A m etaphor is an im aginative w ay of describing intent (intents) n-var som ething by referring to som ething else which If you state your intent in a piece of writing, you is the sam e in a particular way. For exam ple, if say w hat you intend to do in the writing. you w ant to say that som eone is very shy and frightened o f things, you m ight say that they are invalidation n-uncount a m ouse. The invalidation of som eone’s academic qualifications is a declaration that they are no longer valid. microfinance n-uncount M icrofinance is the lending o f money to irrelevant a d j unem ployed people or people or groups that have If you describe som ething such as a fact or rem ark a low income, and who m ay not usually be able as irrelevant, you m ean that it is not connected to borrow money. with w hat you are discussing or dealing with. modesty n-uncount j If you write with modesty, you use im personal and cautious language in your writing. justification n-uncount If you use left or right justification when you lay module (modules) n-count out printed text, you begin each line at the same A m odule is one o f the separate parts of a course distance from the left-hand or right-hand edge of taught at a college or university. the page or column. morality n-uncount The m orality of som ething is how right or k acceptable it is. key word (key words) n-count Key w ords in a text are the m ost im portant w ords n used in discussing a topic. neutral adj-graded If som eone uses neutral language, they choose I w ords which do not indicate that they approve or lab report (lab reports ) n-count disapprove of something. A lab report is a document which you write after doing an experim ent or investigating a situation o in a laboratory. objective adj linear adj If som eone is objective, they base their opinions on A linear process or development is one in which facts rather than on their personal feelings. som ething changes or progresses straight from one stage to another, and has a starting point and obstacle (obstacles) n-count You can refer to anything that m akes it difficult for an ending point. you to do som ething as an obstacle. literature review (literature reviews) n-count outline (outlines) n-var If you do a literature review, you read relevant An outline is a general explanation or description literature such as books and journal articles so o f something. that you have a good, basic knowledge o f a topic. m P measure (measures) n-count paraphrasing n-uncount Paraphrasing is when you express what When som eone, usually a government or other som eone else has said or written in a different authority, takes m easures to do som ething, they way. 169  W riting passive (passives) n-count principle (principles) n-count A passive, passive form , or passive verb is formed The principles o f a particular theory or philosophy using ‘be’ and the past participle of a verb. The are its basic rules or laws. subject o f a passive clause does not perform the action expressed by the verb but is affected by it. procrastination n-uncount Procrastination is when you keep leaving things you For exam ple, in ‘H e’s been m urdered’, the verb is should do until later, often because you do not in the passive. w ant to do them. pedagogy n-uncount proofreading n-uncount Pedagogy is the study and theory of the m ethods Proofreading is the act of reading through a book, and principles of teaching. an article, or an essay before it is subm itted or phrasal verb (phrasal verbs) n-count published in order to find and m ark m istakes that A phrasal verb is a com bination o f a verb and an need to be corrected. adverb or preposition, for exam ple ‘shut u p ’ or ‘look after’, which together have a particular proposal (proposals) n-count A proposal is a plan or an idea, often a form al or meaning. written one, which is suggested for people to policy (policies) n-var think about and decide upon. A policy is a set of ideas or plans that is used as a basis for m aking decisions, especially in politics, provoke (provokes, provoking, provoked) verb If som ething provokes a question, reaction, or econom ics, or business. effect, it causes the question to be asked, causes a possession n-uncount particular reaction, or has a particular effect. Possession is the state of having something because you have obtained it or because it r belongs to you. possessive (possessives) n-count reference work (reference works) n-count A reference w ork is a book, journal, or article that A possessive is a w ord such as ‘m y’ or ‘his’ which you look at when you need specific inform ation shows who or w hat som ething belongs to or is or facts about a subject. connected with, or the possessive form of a name or noun which has ‘s added to it, as in ‘Jenny’s’ or reliable adj ‘cat’s’. Inform ation that is reliable or that is from a reliable source is very likely to be correct. post-modern adj Post-m odern is used to describe som ething or research report (research reports) noun som eone that is influenced by post-m odernism. A research report is a document that you write which show s the results o f your research. post-modernism n-uncount Post-modernism is a late twentieth century approach respectively adv in art, architecture, and literature which typically Respectively m eans in the sam e order as the items m ixes styles, ideas, and references to modern that you have just mentioned. society, often in an ironic way. s P R N-UNCOUNT PR is an abbreviation for public relations. Public saying (sayings) n-count relations is the part o f an organization’s w ork A saying is a sentence that people often say and that that is concerned with obtaining the public’s gives advice or inform ation about hum an life and approval for what it does. experience. preliminary adj scandal (scandals) n-count Preliminary activities or discussions take place at A scandal is a situation or event that is thought the beginning o f an event, often as a form of to be shocking and im m oral and that everyone preparation. know s about. 170  Glossary search term (search terms) n - c o u n t stance (stances) n-count A search term is a w ord or phrase that you put Your stance on a particular m atter is your attitude into a database or search engine in order to to it. find inform ation, books, or journal articles that contain or deal with a particular subject. sub-clause (sub-clauses) n-count A sub-clause or subordinate clause is a clause sector (sectors) n - c o u n t in a sentence which adds to or com pletes the A particular sector of a country’s economy is inform ation given in the m ain clause. It cannot the part connected with that specified type of usually stand alone as a sentence. industry. synonym (synonyms) n-count seminar (seminars) n - c o u n t A synonym is a w ord or expression which m eans A sem inar is a class at a college or university in the sam e as another w ord or expression. which the teacher and a sm all group of students discuss a topic. synthesis (syntheses) n-count A synthesis of different ideas or styles is a mixture shareholder (shareholders) n - c o u n t or com bination of these ideas or styles. A shareholder is a person who owns shares in a company. t sophistication n - u n c o u n t tentative adj Sophistication is the quality o f being more Tentative answ ers, plans, or arrangem ents are not advanced or com plex than other things. definite or certain, but have been given or m ade as a first step. specification (specifications) n - c o u n t A specification is a requirement which is clearly tone n-sing stated, for exam ple about the necessary features The tone of a speech or piece of writing is its style in the design of something. and the opinions or ideas expressed in it. spidergram (spidergram s) n - c o u n t trial and error phrase A spidergram is a drawing to show facts or ideas, If you do som ething by trial and error, you try which has the m ain topic in a circle in the centre several different m ethods of doing it until you with other im portant facts on lines drawn out find the method that w orks properly. from this central circle. v stakeholder (stakeholders) n - c o u n t Stakeholders are people who have an interest in a verify (verifies, verifying, verified) v e rb com pany’s or organization’s affairs. If you verify something, you check that it is true by careful exam ination or investigation. 171  Answ er key Chapter 1 Exercise 1 With reference choose one theory 1 ,4 = give different points of view (and your to one of these explain how this theory opinion) theories, explain relates to practice by how they help answering the question: 2, 3 = write about, describe us understand ‘How does the theory When answering questions 2 and 3 you will the nature of enable an understanding have to describe w hat (might have) happened. planning practice. of the nature of Q uestions 1 and 4 are m ore about opinions about planning practice?’ how far som ething is true (‘less’, ‘sufficiently’) and the term inology used is open to interpretation Exercise 4 (‘effective’, ‘advanced’ ). 1 C N otice how the meaning o f a w ord depends on 2 B the context. Different disciplines m ay have different w ays o f using w ords, and you need to think about w hat happens in yours. Looking at exam ple Exercise 5 essays or exam questions from previous years 1,2,3/ can help. ‘appreciation of politics’ ? The question says... X Exercise 2 1 c 2 a 3 4 h 5 b 6 d There is a danger here that the student is going in 7 e 8 j 9 10 i the w rong direction. The question could be reform ulated as follow s: ‘Is Exercise 3