Wheat, Dough, Batter.pdf

Flour Definition: Are powdered products made from milling or grinding cereal grains, root crops, legumes and other starchy foods. Use of word flour unqualified means wheat flour With appropriate descriptive terms to indicate source or nature. Thus, rice flour, kamote...

Flour Definition: Are powdered products made from milling or grinding cereal grains, root crops, legumes and other starchy foods. Use of word flour unqualified means wheat flour With appropriate descriptive terms to indicate source or nature. Thus, rice flour, kamote flour, potato flour, ube flour, peanut flour, even leaf flour and fish flours. Wheat: Kinds Winter wheat Planted in regions where winter is mild Starts growing in the fall, lays dormant during winter and matures in early spring Spring Wheat Planted in places where winter is severe. Planted in spring and harvested in the late summer.  Wheat: Classes Varies with protein content, vitreosity or translucency of the kernel, color, hardness of kernel Hard Red Spring and Hard Red Winter: has high to intermediate CHON content (9.6-14.8%) with gluten strength suitable for bread production Soft wheat: cakes and cookies Durum: pasta  Milling of Wheat Flour To remove the outside branny layer and the germ of wheat grain to obtain maximum extraction of endosperm without damaging the starch granules. 2 basic steps 1. Gradual breaking and grinding of the kernel 2. Separating and purifying the particles according to size and characteristics. These steps are possible because the endosperm is granular and easily pulverized while the bran and germ portions are flaky.  Milling of Flour Carotenoid- present in freshly milled flour Bleaching agents/ Oxidizing agents: -Nitrogen -Benzoyl peroxide -Chlorine dioxide If flour is chemically bleached, must be stated on the label Enrichment b1 b3 b2 -USA: mandates thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and iron (some states includes Ca and Vit. D -Philippines: B1, B2 and B3 and Fe  Grading of Flour Straight grade flour- composed of all the wheat flours from the different streams w/ exception of poorest streams. Wheat flour classified -patent flour- made from most refined streams of flour - clear flour- the remaining streams of flour after removing the patent grade. Less white and used for whole wheat bread.  Low-grade Flour Low-grade Flour is made from straight flour. It is very dark. It is generally used for animal feed (e.g. dog and cat kibble, dog biscuits, etc.). Wheat and Wheat Flour: Composition Wheat grain: 84% endosperm, 14.5% bran and 1.5% germ Wheat: if milled, 75% of the grain is recovered; produce “shorts” (a mixture of bran and germ for animal feeding) Energy value: 100g wheat flour= 360 kcal (40 g Pro and 71-79 g starch) Moisture content of flour: 12-14% water Wheat and Wheat Flour: Composition Protein content Wheat flour is the only flour capable of forming a dough that will retain gas evolved during fermentation and subsequent baking yield to light, well-aerated loaf of bread Wheat is unique because of its gluten content (the actual substance which has gas retaining properties). Wheat protein: albumins, globulins, gliadins, glutenins Note: Interaction of gliadin and glutenin results to gluten formation Wheat and Wheat Flour: Composition Lipids Whole kernel: 1-2% lipids (germ, 14% of the weight) Triglycerides, sterols (Vitamin E and phospholipids) Small amount of lipid: improves gluten quality When lipid fraction is extracted from flour, more mixing is required to develop gluten  Wheat and Wheat Flour: Composition Flour Pigments Carotenoids: creamy color of freshly milled flour; oxidized by air and oxidizing agents (Chlorine Peroxide and Benzoyl Dioxide) Note: Oxidizing agents is a flour improver (improving baking quality)  Wheat and Wheat Flour: Composition Flour Enzymes Amylase: forms sugar (fermented by yeast which produces Carbon dioxide) α-amylase acts on 1:4 linkages (internal in amylose chain) yields dextrins β-amylase splits 1:4 producing maltose Proteases: converts flour protein more soluble (soft and reduce elasticity of gluten) Proteases or proteolytic enzymes is inactivated by oxidizing agent (bleaching agent) Market Forms of Wheat Flour Whole wheat flour ▫ graham; entire wheat flour; contains the component of wheat kernel it its original proportion ▫ More nutritious; does not keep well than refined white flour Bread Flour ▫ Milled from hard wheats and blends; strong flour ▫ Off-white color; granular texture; for yeast-leavened breads ▫ CHON content: 12-14% Whole wheat bread Market Forms of Wheat Flour All-purpose Flour ▫ Family or general purpose flour ▫ Characteristics: intermediate between bread and cake flour ▫ Blend of hard and soft wheat Cake Flour ▫ Soft flour; weak flour (low protein content) ▫ Finely-milled: velvety when rubbed ▫ Usually made from the most refined white flour streams (short patent grade) ▫ Highly bleached (chlorine), whitest ▫ High starch, low gluten: suitable for delicate, fine textured cakes  Pastry Flour ▫ Midway between cake and all-purpose flour Enriched ▫ Specified levels of nutrients as required by law are added to white flour Self-rising flour ▫ White flour to which sodium bicarbonate or baking soda plus an acid salt. Added as leaveners. Not suitable for bread making.  Gluten flour ▫ Dried extracted gluten is mixed with wheat flour in proportions that will yield about 41% CHON Instantized or Quick-mixing flour ▫ Processed by moistening and then redrying the flour to form agglomerates that do not lump or pack. ▫ It dissolves more quickly than all purpose flour, which saves you time. And it mixes very easily, which makes for smooth, lump-free sauces and creamy gravies every time.  Non-wheat or Composite Flour Rye Flour ▫ obtained from sifting rye meal ▫ Of the non-wheat flour, it approaches the quality of wheat flour for bread-making but still inferior which lacks gluten-forming CHON Buckwheat Flour ▫ sifted finely ground product used in pancakes Corn Flour ▫ Obtained by milling and sifting yellow/white corn ▫ Main ingredient for Tortillas (unleavened corn cake) Non-wheat or Composite Flour Potato Flour ▫ Dried, ground; can be made into doughnuts and cookies Rice Flour ▫ Made by milling white rice Soy Flour ▫ Has 2 types: Full-fat (dehulled soybeans) and low-fat (defatted soybeans) ▫ Has strong beany flavor; high CHON but no gluten Non-wheat or Composite Flour Waxy Rice Flour ▫ Sweet-rice flour; Mochico (USA) ▫ Used as stabilizer in frozen products ▫ Malagkit flour palitaw Other flours ▫ Coconut, Cottonseed, Sunflower, Peanut, Sweet potato, Purple yam or ube, Mungbean and other Rootcrops, Seed oils or Legumes; Fish flour  Flour Mixtures: Types and Ingredients Are blends of liquids and flour with other ingredients in certain amounts intended for specific product. Classified into batters and dough: ▫ Batters and Dough (flour mixtures) Based on the proportion of liquid to flour ▫ Batters Can be poured (pour and drop) ▫ Dough Viscous; can be handled Amount of flour/cup of liquid is 50-100% Soft dough- still sticky to touch Stiff dough- smooth and can be rolled and cut readily. Pancake Batter  Variable Factors in the Versatility of Flour Mixtures 1. Kind of ingredients 2. Proportion of ingredients or recipe formulation 3. Measuring and mixing techniques. 4. Environmental conditions like temperature of the ingredients, relative humidity and room temperature. 5. Method of cooking: steaming, frying, baking, electronic cooking etc. 6. Conditions of cooking: time-temperature of baking, placement in the oven etc. 7. Container used 8. Conditions of handling after baking Flour Mixture Ingredients: Flour Provides the structural framework of baked goods. Contributes to color, texture and flavor Flour Mixture Ingredients: Liquid Liquids will serve as tougheners. They will enhance the development of gluten and/or facilitate the gelatinization of starch, thus, contributing to structure. Additionally, liquid serves as a solvent it may also act as a leavener contribute to chemical reactions, and/or as a dispersing agent. If it is an appropriate type of liquid, such as milk, it may contribute to the Maillard reaction. Milk and water, fruit juices, and potato water contribute in different ways to the quality of a baked product.  Flour Mixture Ingredients: Fats Shortening, fat or oil contribute to the tenderization of baked products through inhibition of gluten development and starch gelatinization. They do this through a water-proofing effect, possibly due to the complexing with the carbohydrate and/or protein. Fat can help leaven a product due to incorporation of air. The extent of each role fat will play is dependent on the fat composition. For example, butter or margarine contains water and so are not as great a tenderizer as pure fat. Additionally, butter may contain some sugar and protein in the milk solids and so contribute to the Maillard Reaction. Of course, triglyceride fatty acid composition influences fat plasticity and its ultimate function.  Flour Mixture Ingredients: Sugar Sugar contributes to the tenderization of the product due to inhibition of gluten development, "peptization" of gluten and/or inhibition of starch gelatinization. It does this primarily through its competition for water. Additionally, sugar may inhibit denaturation of the egg and flour protein. Sugar serves a number of other roles, such as enhancing the Maillard Reaction. It may also serve as a substrate, making yeast in the fermentation for leavening in bread.  Flour Mixture Ingredients: Leavening Agents A leavening agent is a substance incorporated in a before after batter or dough that will generate gas during preparation and subsequent heating causing the product to rise and subsequently increase in volume.  Flour Mixture Ingredients: Leavening Agents Leavening action in a baked product may be due to chemical leavening, biological leavening and/or mechanical leavening. Mechanical leavening is generally added as a beaten aerated product or a steam leavened product. Air can be incorporated by beating eggs, sifting flour, beating batters or folding and rolling doughs. The additional leavening action by chemical means is produced in a baked product by mixing an acid reactant material and sodium bicarbonate. This acid reacting material is varied to produce the type of reaction desired in a baked product. These different acids each have their unique characteristic dependent on a range of environmental conditions and stresses.  Flour Mixture Ingredients: Eggs Eggs may contribute liquid to a product and thus serve as a toughener. It is a toughener partially due to its contribution to gelatinization of starch and/or development of gluten. The egg white portion appears to be particularly effective as a toughener. Actually, the yolk serves as a tenderizer, probably due to its fat content. The yolk may also function to emulsify fat due to its lecithin content. Eggs also contribute to leavening action through the emulsification of fat and air incorporation, foaming action and/or through the contribution of water to steam.  Summary on the Roles of Ingredients FLOUR ▫ contributes to enhanced structure due to gluten ▫ contributes to enhanced structure due to starch ▫ contributes to browning due to glucose and subsequent Maillard reaction ▫ may contribute air due to air collected on particles ▫ may decrease structure due to natural enzymes LIQUID ▫ may contribute to structure due to gluten formation of natural flour gliadin and glutenin ▫ may contribute to structure due to starch gelatinization ▫ may contribute liquid for steam leavening ▫ may contribute liquid to contribute to Maillard reaction [i.e. milk] ▫ may contribute liquid to contribute to Maillard reaction due to pH [i.e. orange juice]  FAT ▫ inhibit gluten formation ▫ inhibit starch gelatinization ▫ permit incorporation of air for leavening ▫ may allow color incorporation SUGAR ▫ may inhibit structure due to impact upon starch gelatinization ▫ may inhibit structure due to competition for water and gluten formation ▫ may contribute to color if hydrolyzed to reducing sugar ▫ may contribute to flavor [sweetness] LEAVENING ▫ depending on leavening, may inhibit or enhance gluten formation and structure ▫ depending on leavening, may inhibit or enhance starch gelatinization and structure ▫ depending on leavening and affect on pH may inhibit color ▫ leavening action will affect texture Summary on the Roles of Ingredients In reviewing the roles Toughener Tenderizer of ingredients, it is important to consider Structural Structural Enhancer Inhibitor how the ingredients are balanced. In addition to the liquid Flour Fat versus dry ingredients, it is important to also Egg Sugar balance the tougheners and tenderizers or Egg white Egg yolk structural enhancers or structural Water Acid inhibitors. Milk  Gluten A water-insoluble lipoprotein complex formed 1 2 after kneading or mixing flour for breads. Three steps of gluten development: 3 4 1. Hydration of the flour 2. Mixing to produce a sticky mass 3. Kneading to develop gluten. Factors that Affect Gluten Quality 1. Amount of protein in the flour. Varies with the kind of flour used. Bread flour-higher protein. 2. Proportion of liquid. The higher the protein content of the flour, the greater the amount of water needed for hydration. 3. Quality and extent of kneading. Circular motion is not effective in gluten development. -Stretching and folding motions. 4. Effect of other ingredients. 5. Conditions of baking. In baking, steam stretches the elastic gluten until a point when heat has coagulated the gluten.  Gluten Development Many different ingredients will impact gluten development. Common ones are as follows: flour, sugar, fat, liquid. The type of flour will affect the strength of gluten. The influence of the type of flour is dependent upon the flour composition and the role of flour in the baked product. For example, soy flour does not impact the elasticity of the structure as it does not contain gluten. Gluten Development and Sugar Sugars generally will serve to decrease the strength of gluten development due to its competition for water. ▫ Additionally, it will actually decrease gluten strength once formed. It apparently does this latter for some as yet not defined reason. Sugar likely affects gluten strength due to its competition for water. ▫ Because the sugar is an effective competitor, it inhibits the gliadin-glutenin-water complex and thus gluten is weakened. There has been some indication that gluten may weaken it for some as yet undetermined subtle reason. Gluten Development: Fat Fat and shortening will decrease the strength of gluten as it inhibits its development. ▫ Essentially, it prevents the gliadin and gluten from coming in contact with the water and forming the complex gluten. It may serve as a "water-proofer" so that the water, gliadin and glutenin do not interact.  Flour and Flour Mixtures Mixing is an important factor in producing any baked product. The blades themselves will make a difference. These influence viscosity, degree of dispersion, air incorporation and other quality characteristics. Specifically, just reviewing the effect of mixing or agitation on flour itself, the following will occur. The flour, made up of chunks of protein, starch and starch granule protein can be mixed with water. The mixing action will serve to physically break apart the protein chunks into smaller parts and expose the hydrophilic portion of the proteins.  General Objectives in mixing Batters and Doughs are as follows: Uniform distribution of ingredients Minimum loss of the leavening agent Optimum blending to produce characteristic textures Optimum development of gluten for various products  The Mixing Process Straight dough Sponge and Dough Method or Sponge Method Muffin Method Pastry Method Conventional Cake Method One-bowl Method Straight Dough Method Single-step process in which all the dough ingredients are mixed into a single batch. Mixing until the dough becomes smooth in appearance. Fermented for 2 to 4 hours Divided into loaves of proper weight, proofed then baked Sponge and Dough or Sponge Method Pre-ferment called the sponge in which part of the dough is used Final development: subsequently add the rest of the dough  Muffin Method Dry ingredients are sifted together in a bowl. In another container, eggs are beaten. Then the oil or melted fat is added to the beaten eggs. The liquid mixture is now added gradually to the bowl of dry ingredients. The extent of mixing depends on the product to be prepared (pancake batter needs less mixing than muffin batter). Pastry Method Dry ingredients are sifted together in a bowl Fat is lightly or cut into the dry ingredients Liquid is added last Suitable for pastry and biscuit making. Conventional Cake Method/ creaming Fat and sugar are creamed together. Beaten eggs are added to the fat-sugar mixture. Dry ingredients are previously sifted together and then added alternately with liquid ingredients.  Modification: Used for lighter and more delicate cakes Egg yolks and whites are separately beaten The yolks are creamed with sugar and the beaten egg whites are folded in the last step. One-bowl Method Also called single-stage method Dry ingredients, melted fat or oil and most of the liquid are mixed in one blend. The beaten eggs are added at the end of the mixing when the last portion of liquid is added. Cake mixes use the one-bowl method and are best blended in a machine or by using a wire whisk or rotary hand beaters. Dough  Outline: Dough Yeast bread Kneading Fermentation Baking Biscuits and Pastry Method of mixing  Yeast Bread Types: Lean- made with basic ingredient: flour, water, yeast, salt (e.g. pan de sal) Rich- made with basic ingredient plus sugar, milk, shortening, egg (e.g. ensaymada, croissant)  Ingredients and Their Functions Flour Liquids Yeast Salt Sugar Fat Eggs (optional)  Flour Bread or APF which has gluten strength. Gluten is a lipoprotein complex formed by the hydration of flour and manipulation of the mixture by kneading The gluten forms the framework of confining the gas produced during fermentation, causing rising of the dough and producing a light and tender product  Liquids Type used- plain water (preferably medium/hard) or whole scalded milk. If evaporated or powdered milk is used, it must be reconstituted first before measuring Role of liquids: – Hydrate flour so it will develop gluten – Disperse yeast cells – Transport food to yeast cells – Hydrolyze starch and sucrose  Liquids Proper proportion of liquid to flour- 1 cup liquid per 3 cups flour. Too much liquid weakens and disperses the gluten; too little liquid makes the dough stiff and tough  Yeast Microorganisms of selected strains Saccharomyces cerevisiae Type: dry pellets or compressed yeast. As a leavening agent, yeast metabolizes sugar to CO2 and acid fermentation. The gas expands the gluten, causing rising of dough Proper proportion of yeast to flour: 2- 2 ½ tsp. yeast per cups of flour Compressed Yeast  Yeast Generally, flour with high gluten strength can withstand fermentation Flour with weak gluten should have shorter fermentation but higher proportion of yeast Too much yeast causes rapid fermentation and makes dough inflated, the thin walls collapse, and volume and texture are poor Too little yeast requires longer fermentation More yeast is required for dough with more sugar and eggs  Yeast Dispersing the yeast – Dry yeast must be dispersed in lukewarm water (40-45ºC or 105-115ºF). – If too hot, yeast will be killed – If too cold, fermentation occurs and production of glutathione occurs; texture is coarse – Compressed yeast is dispersed in other liquids, not necessarily water  Salt Type used: – fine salt Role: – Promotes hydrolysis of starch resulting in development and improvement of flavor – Proper proportion: 1 tsp. for 3 cups of flour or 2% by weight of flour (or 1 tsp per cup liquid) – Too much salt inhibits yeast activity – Too little salt results in rapid fermentation and overproduction of CO2 , dough becomes sticky and has inferior grains  Sugar Type used: sucrose or glucose, not lactose Role: – Provides food for the yeast – For added flavor – Caramelization in baking, results in browning of crust Proper proportion: 1 tsp per cup of flour or 4-5% by weight of flour  Sugar Too much sugar delays gluten formation, retards yeast growth and may even kill the yeast Too little limits fermentation, results in a pale brown crust Eggs counteract the effect of high sugar, but require increased yeast and longer kneading  Fat Type used: plastic fat or shortening Role: – Adds flavor and richness – Lubricates and “shortens” gluten making bread more tender Proper proportion: 1 tbsp fat for 3 cups of flour or 4-6% by weight of flour – The amount used is less in lean dough – For rich dough, as much as 30% fat by weight of flour is used or 1/3 cup per 3 cups of flour  Procedure in Bread Making Preparing the ingredients Mixing the dough Fermentation Proofing Cooking the bread (Baking, Steaming & Deep fat frying) Cooling and storing  1. Preparing the Ingredients All ingredients must be at room temperature except for the liquids which should be lukewarm Accurate measurements are essential for quantity preparation Weighing is preferred Eggs are beaten first  2. Mixing the dough Two methods – Straight dough: all flour is added at once without preliminary fermentation – Sponge-dough method- part of the flour is mixed with water and yeast to make a drop batter and allowed to ferment. Other ingredients are then added to this “sponge” or “levadura” Mixing the Dough  2. Mixing the dough Thorough beating is important to effect hydration of flour and development of gluten. Thus, flour should not be added all at once Fat, sugar and salt are added to the warm liquid Beaten eggs are added when the mixture is still of batter consistency  2. Mixing the dough Kneading is done to complete the mixing and incorporate all the flour – The process is consist of a continuous stretching and folding of the hydrated mixture, making the molecules slide past one another, allows chemical and physical joining of constituents to form gluten – Kneading makes the gluten more cohesive and elastic. This takes about 10-15 minutes or when blisters appear and the dough is smooth and feels satiny  2. Mixing the dough – Overkneading makes gluten lose its cohesiveness, casing cells to coalesce, resulting in heavy cell walls, small volume and dry crumb – Underkneading does not fully develop gluten, resulting in heavy compact crumb, and small volume. Dough with hard wheat requires more kneading time – The type of flour affects the strength of the gluten  2. Mixing the dough – Sugar competes for water, so it inhibits the formation of the gliadin-glutenin-water complex, thus gluten is weak – Fat and shortening reduce the strength of the gluten as these inhibits its development ; they prevent gliadin and glutenin from coming in contact with water, thus “water-proofing” the dough and preventing gluten formation – The type of liquid also impacts gluten development and the ultimate gluten strength  3. Fermentation The kneaded dough is allowed to ferment until double in bulk The process allows yeast to ferment the sugar to CO2 and acids. The gas will cause the gluten to stretch resulting in a rising of the dough. It also favors the production of acetyl methyl carbinol (the nice aroma of baked bread. Acids are produced which makes dough less sticky and more elastic  3. Fermentation Proper conditions for fermentation – The board used must be greased to prevent sticking of the dough. The bowl should also be greased – The surface of the dough must be greased to prevent drying and allow easy stretching as dough rises – The bowl must be covered with damp towel to prevent drying  3. Fermentation Rate of fermentation must be regulated. Too fast fermentation does not allow enough time for development of flavor End point of fermentation: when dough is double in bulk; when dough is light and when pressed with finger, dent remains – Insufficient proofing results in a small volume, uneven coarse texture – Too long cooking results in a flat top, coarse, crumbly texture and porous crust  4. Cooking the bread Baking Steaming Deep fat frying  Cooking the Bread: Baking Temperature is usually 204º to 218ºC or 400º to 425ºF “Ovenspring” occurs during the first 5 minutes of baking. This is due to the acceleration of fermentation due to heat causing expansion of gas and rising of dough During the first 10-12 minutes of baking, the increase in volume is 80%. At this point, the yeast is killed and fermentation stops  Cont. Cooking the Bread: Baking During the last 3 minutes of baking, dough sets and becomes drier Starch gelatinizes, gluten coagulates and then sets, water is evaporated; crust browns due to dextrinization of starch, maillard reaction and caramelization Too high temperature forms the crust before optimum gas expansion has occurred and the gluten coaguates before stretching has occurred (smaller volume)  Cont. Cooking the Bread: Baking Too low baking temperature causes excessive gas expansion, over stretching of the gluten, resulting in a product will collapsed volume and uneven texture The crust is pale and rubbery and usually separates from body  Steaming Shaped dough is placed on a piece of newsprint paper before putting in the steamer An increase in volume will also occur within the first 10 minutes of cooking End point is when product has doubled in volume Steamer must be covered with towel to prevent moisture from settling down on product  Deep Fat Frying Dough is deep fat-fried at 194ºC or 380ºF Care is taken to maintain its desired temperature all the time, otherwise, the product will absorb to much fat and become soggy Fried product is drained well on absorbent paper End point of frying is when product is golden brown  Standard White Yeast Bread Ingredients Percent Formula Metric Formula Measure Formula Flour 100% ~168 g ~1.5 cups Milk 70% 118mL 1/2 cup Sugar 4% 6g 1/2 tbsp Fat 4% 6g 1/2 tbsp Salt 2% 3g 1/2 tsp Yeast 4% 7g 1 tbsp scant Directions for Straight Dough Method 1. Preheat oven to 200C(400F). Be sure to check the oven temperature with a thermometer. 2. Scald milk by heating to 92C for 1 minute. If a "skin" is formed on the surface, it is "done". Add sugar, fat, and salt. 3. In a small custard dish put active dry yeast to soak in 2 tbsp (30 mL) of water at 45C( 110-115F). 4. Cool milk to 27C. Add the hydrated yeast. 5. Add half the flour, stir until the batter is smooth and free from lumps. 6. Add more flour (so that the dough is not too sticky to knead.) Stir thoroughly. Avoid extra flour if the bread is to have fine grain. 7. Put 1 tsp of flour onto a dry board. let dough rest for three minutes. Roll dough around in the flour lightly to coat the surface. Record the start of kneading time. Then knead (fold gently with firm, short strokes) for 8 to 15 minutes. Rotate the dough a quarter turn after each stroke or two. The dough should feel smooth and velvety with small barely discernible white "blisters" on the surface when completed. Record completion of kneading time. 8. Place warm water (27C) in the bottom of a double boiler. Place dough in the top of the lightly greased double boiler and cover. Record start of fermentation time. let dough rise until nearly double in bulk and/or the dough is no longer elastic when poked with a finger. Record completion of fermentation time. 9. Punch down gently and shape into loaf. Place into the lightly oiled half-pound loaf pan. 10. 10 Cover loaf pan and let rise at 27C until approximately double in bulk. When light, the dough will just barely keep the imprint of your finger when gently touched. Record start of baking time. 11. Bake loaf at 200C (400F) for 20 to 25 minutes 12. Remove from the oven and place on cooling rack. Record completion of baking time.  Cooling and Storage Changes in flavor and aroma accompany the changes in texture during staling - To prevent staling of breads, breads are wrapped in vapor- and moisture-proof packaging material; stored in tightly sealed containers; or kept frozen – An emulsifier, glycerol monostearate added to bread doughs retards staling – Antimycotic agents like sodium or calcium propionate added to the dough will prevent molds – Refrigeration accelerates staling, but delays mold growth  Cooling and Storing After baking, breads are removed at once from the pans. Cooling should be done in sanitary surroundings since breads readily absorb odors, pick up molds and other microorganisms In storing breads, avoid stacking them up unless they have a hard crust Once bread is outside the oven, staling process begins.  Cooling and Storage Staling is the process wherein moisture is lost and starch retrogrades, oxidation changes in the gluten occur. The crust loses its crispness and becomes leathery; the crumb becomes hard and crumbly and dries out Staling appears to be associated with starch retrogradation and moisture redistribution  Quick Breads Quick to make because they are leavened by air, steam and/or carbon dioxide produced by baking powder or baking soda, instead of the slow-acting yeast that requires a longer preparation time. Muffins, cakes, cream puffs and cookies.  Pastries and Biscuits Stiff dough made with flour, shortening, water; has very low moisture and high fat, should be flaky but crisp, tender not doughy  Pastries Ingredients: Flour Shortening Liquids Salt Sugar Leavening  Pastries: Flour Type used: ALL PURPOSE FLOUR – APF for a more cohesive dough – Pastry flour for a more tender, crumbly pastry. When not available, use 60% soft four and 40% hard flour – High gluten flour is not suitable since gluten development is not desired Proportion: – 4 parts flour to 1 part liquid to 2 parts fat Role: provides gluten for structure  Pastry: Shortening Type: – plastic fats is preferred tallow, lard, butter – Vegetable fats are better than lard for sweet pastries – Lard is better for empanadas – Butter is generally too soft Role: – Shortens the gluten: tender crust. Too little fat results in tough pastries – Waterproofs flour particles: limits gluten development  Pastry: Liquids Type used: cold or ice water to keep the fat particles in firm state Role: – To make fat particles adhere – To develop gluten slightly – To provide steam for leaven flakes crisp,tender product Amount: only enough to provide for the above functions – Too much liquid too much gluten develops – Too little liquid crumbly and browns easily  Pastry: Salt, Sugar and Leavening Salt: fine salt is used for flavor; omitted if salted fat is used Sugar is used for sweet pies only; for flavor and browned appearance Leavening: steam from the liquids is the primary leavener  Mixing the Pastry Pastry method is used. – Only water is added. – Prevent the flour coated fat particles from being hydrated unnecessarily Overmixing should be avoided – develops too much gluten and melts the fat resulting in less tender, less flaky crust Resting the dough by chilling – allows water to redistribute more thoroughly in the dough; at the same time, hardens the shortening again less likely to liquefy in shaping  Pastry Method Dry ingredients are sifted together in a bowl Fat is lightly or cut into the dry ingredients Liquid is added last Suitable for pastry and biscuit making.  Pastry: Rollin out and Shaping Dough is rolled out between pieces of wax paper – lifted out and placed on ungreased pan; – remove top sheet of waxed paper, – place on pan paper side up, – then remove paper Bottom crust is pricked with fork Top crust is slit to provide a vent for steam to escape “Washes” using egg or milk are brushed on top crust for glossy, darker color  Pastry: Baking and Characteristics Desired Temperature of 425ºF-445ºF for a short time, just enough to bake the crust without boiling or filling Characteristics: – Crust is slightly blistered; rough, not smooth – Texture is crisp, flaky not compact or soggy – Cut easily but not crumbly  Pastry: Failures and Possible Causes Tough pastry – Too much flour – Too much water – Overmixing Crumbly and Mealy – Soft melted fat used – Too little water – Too much fat – undermixing  Pastry: Failures and Possible Causes Too much blisters – Not pricked adequately – Too low oven temperature Shrunken crust – Overmixing – Uneven rolling Tough, compact – Too little fat – Overmixing, overhandling  Pastry: Failures and Possible Causes Soggy bottom crust – Overhandling – Too much filling – Soaking of pastry before baking – Placed too high in oven – Too low oven temperature Shrinking in Pan – Ovehandling – Pastry stretched too tightly in pan  Cookies Cookie batters are similar to most cake batters except: – that less liquid is used and; – proportionately more fat and eggs are added dry, crisp product Depending on its viscosity – The batter may be “dropped” from a spoon directly onto greased baking pan – Rolled out and cut with a cookie cutter – Shaped into balls, the flattened; or – Passed through a pastry tube  Cookies: After Baking Cookies should be cooled – Then stored immediately in air-tight containers to avoid loss of crispness which is due to the hygroscopic property of sugar and starch  Classification of Cookies Drop Rolled Bar Molded Refrigerator Pinwheel Pressed  Drop Cookies Made from batter dropped onto the baking sheet from a teaspoon – Mixture vary depending on whether the cookies will be baked individually or the batter will be spread out in thin layers of greased pan or baking sheet and cut into cookies after baking Should be about ½ to 1 cm thick after they are baked – Ample space in the oven is needed – It is always advisable to grease the baking sheet very lightly The cookie is done when its surface is delicately browned and the imprint of the finger will show slightly Chocolate chip cookie  Rolled Cookies Have little or no liquid Contains little or no leavening agent other than the air incorporated in the creaming process of the fat-sugar mixture Dough is soft and can be handled and rolled – If stiff, it yields dry, compact cookies – It is advisable to roll only a portion of dough at one time – Rolling is usually done between sheets of wax paper  Rolled Cookies The thickness of rolled dough should be 1/8 to 3/16 of an inch – It should be rolled to prevent dry, doughy cookies – The thinner the dough, the crispier the cookies will be As many cookies should be cut in one rolling – Cookie cutters should first be dipped in flour and shaken before they are used Uses ungreased cookies sheets for baking Sugar, creamy frosting, colored sugar bits can make the cookies special  Bar Cookies Made by spreading the dough on a pan, then baking and cutting into pieces (squares or bars) – It is advisable to slightly dust cookies with confectioner’s sugar before cutting Elegant dessert- if with creamy icing, or after removing from the oven, covered with chocolate patties which can be swirled with a knife as they melt  Molded Cookies Formed into desired shaped with the hand – rolled into balls then placed about 8 cm apart on lightly greased baking sheet an flattened before baking For special touches, the dough can be flattened with a fork in a crisscross pattern – or a hollow can be formed at the center of each ball of dough with a thumb or a spoon and filled with jelly or other favorite fillings  Pinwheels 2 portions of dough of contrasting colors are rolled out to the same size – one roll is laid on top of the other then the double layer of dough is rolled gently until it is about 1 cm thick – Rolling should be done tightly, beginning at the wide side, until a roll 30 cm long and about 3 cm in diameter is produced It is then chilled, sliced then baked Of variety designs 2 rolls of dough of contrasting halves can be made  Pressed Cookies Formed with cookie press Dough must be kept pliable to produce the desired cookies shapes – if dough becomes soft, it must be chilled slightly, then forced through a cookie press tipped with varied designs and shapes Tiny bits of fruit pressed lightly on each cookie make a gay colorful variation Tinting with few drops food coloring gives special touches to pressed cookie  Biscuits: Types 1. Flaky cookie-like biscuit that separates into layers when the biscuit is broken 2. A raised, small round bread-like biscuit made from baking powder or baking soda  Biscuits Ingredients Soft dough 1c APF 1/3 to ½ c Liquid 2 to 3 Tbsp Fat or oil 1 ½ to 2 tsp Baking powder ½ tsp Salt Optional Ingredients: grated cheese, bits of ham or bacon, nuts, raisins or candied fruit, marmalade, egg, small sugar, etc.  Biscuit Liquid – Milk is preferred to plain water Plastic Fat is better than oil (liquid)  Biscuit: Mixing Method Pastry method is used Procedure: 1. Sift all the dry ingredients into a bowl 2. Cut shortening into flour until lumps the size of coarse cornmeal are formed 3. Pour in the milk and mix lightly 4. Turn dough out onto a lightly floured dough board 5. Roll out dough to about ½ cm thick. Use short light strokes  Biscuit: Mixing Method Cont. Procedure: 6. Cut with floured cutter 7. Push the left over dough together but do not knead 8. Then roll and cut more biscuits. The dough can also be cut with the use of knife 9. Bake in cookie sheets at 191ºC to 204º (375º-400ºF) for 12 to 15 minutes (some 218ºC or 425ºF)  Biscuits: Standards for Judging Well-shaped biscuits have straight sides and slightly rounded tops The top crust is tender, fairly smooth and golden brown The texture inside is fine and tender The biscuits are flaky The inside of the biscuit is creamy white The biscuits appear to be well blended and have a pleasing flavor  Notes on Biscuits The number of strokes should not be over than 20 for a recipe that calls for 2 cups flour The number of strokes averages 15 kneading motions to obtain some cohesiveness and to develop the gluten to the right degree of structure An overdeveloped gluten will not give a flaky, tender biscuit  Notes on Biscuits Shaped pieces are placed on an ungreased baking sheet about half an inch apart and allowed to stand for 30 minutes before baking The tops maybe brushed with milk to dissolve baking powder particles if any of the surface of the biscuit dough; otherwise these particles would appear as brown “freckles” on the baked crust Batters  Outline: Batters ◈ Shortened cakes and chemical leavens ◈ Unshortened cakes ◈ Methods of mixing cakes ◈ Common problems in mixing and baking cakes  Cakes: Types ◈ Shortened Cakes ◈ Foam Cakes  Shortened ◈ Batter type ◈ Depends upon eggs, flour and milk for structure and contain high % fat ◈ The volume is achieved with the use of leavening agent Pound cake Standard butter cakes Chocolate cakes Banana cake  Foam Cakes ◈ Unshortened cakes ◈ Depends upon the extension and denaturation of egg protein for the bulk of the structure of the finished volume Sponge cake Chiffon cake Angel Cake  Shortened Cakes: Ingredients and Their Functions ◈ Flour Preferably cake flour; APF may be used for some types ◈ Fat Used is plastic fat, as fat melts, allows gas expansion of air that is trapped resulting in better volume, e.g. butter and margarine ◈ Emulsifiers Glycerol monostearate- uniform distribution of fat and makes mixture more stable  Shortened Cakes: Ingredients and Their Functions ◈ Sugar Crystalline sugar, not syrup which: 1. facilitates incorporation of air into the fats 2. Elevates temperature of coagulation of egg protein 3. Reduces swelling of starch grains resulting in more tender crumb ◈ Eggs Whole eggs maybe beaten together or separately 1. For structure, eggs coagulate --- rigidity 2. For leavening, when separated, beaten egg whites incorporates air 3. Yolk is an emulsifier, thus increases tenderness  Shortened Cakes: Ingredients and Their Functions ◈ Leavening Agent/s 1. Air- incorporated in creaming and in beating eggwhite 2. Steam-produced from the water in baking 3. CO2- produced by baking powder and if mixture contains an acid, baking soda is used ◈ Liquids Usually whole milk; fruit juice may also be used  Foam Cakes: Ingredients and Their Functions ◈ Eggs White is separated from yolk and beaten with sugar to form a foam, leavens and provides structure (denaturation and coagulation); important to use fresh eggs at room temperature for better foam ◈ Sugar Crystalline white sugar is used For volume Has tenderizing effect  Foam Cakes: Ingredients and Their Functions ◈ Acid Cream of tartar is used to egg whites to stabilize the foam; acid delays foam formation ◈ Flour Cake flour is used for structure and framework ◈ Leavening Beaten egg white is the main leavening agent; baking powder may be added  Foam Cakes: Ingredients and Their Functions ◈ Fats Oil used only in chiffon cakes; sponge cakes may or may not have added fat ◈ Liquids Water is used  Comparison of Four Basic Types of Cake Type of Flour Liquid Number Method of Type Amount Leavening Agent Cake Part Adding Air (egg white Angel 1c - 12 Foam, folded in - - foam stabilized whites with sugar Air (egg white and Sponge 1c 5T 4 yolks Foam, folded in - - yolk foams water and stabilized with whites acid and sugar), steam Baking powder (1 Chiffon 1 1/3 c 6T 2 yolks; Yolks added Oil 2/3 c ¼ tsp), air (egg water 4 whites with liquid, white foam white foam stabilized with folded in sugar), steam Baking powder Shortened 1c ¼c 1 whole Creamed with Plastic 2/3 c (3/4 tsp) air, milk the fat and Fat steam sugar foam  Mixing Cake ◈ Shortened cakes Conventional method Muffin method One bowl method ◈ Foam cakes  Shortened Cakes: Mixing ◈ Conventional Thorough creaming of fat and sugar to incorporate air until light and fluffy Slightly beaten eggs are then added to the creamed mixture and beaten well Dry ingredients are added alternately with the liquids; overmixing should be avoided A variation is to beat egg whites separately with half of the sugar  Cont. Shortened Cakes: Mixing ◈ Muffin Method Eggs, milk and fat are combined together and blended with the sifted dry ingredients; ovemixing is avoided to prevent “tunnel” formation ◈ One Bowl Method All ingredients are “dumped” in the bowl and mixed together; used for mixtures with relatively high fat and liquid, or ready mixes  Foam Cakes: Mixing ◈ Sponge Cake Egg white is beaten with cream of tartar and part of the sugar until soft peaks form Egg yolk is beaten with the rest of the sugar until thick Dry ingredients are added to beaten egg yolk in thin films The batter is then folded into the beaten egg white  Foam Cakes: Mixing ◈ Chiffon Cake Egg white is beaten with cream of tartar and part of the sugar The egg yolk, oil and liquid are added to the dry ingredients and mixed together until smooth The beaten egg whites are then folded into the batter  Comparison of Methods for Making Shortened Cakes Method of Mixing Method Eggs Fat Liquid and Flour Conventional Whole, beaten, blended into Creamed with sugar Alternately (1/3 flour, ½ creamed mixture liquid, 1/3 flour) Modified Yolk, beaten and blended Conventional with creamed mixture; Same as Same as conventional whites beaten with no conventional method sugar, folded in at the end Conventional Same as modified Sponge conventional except ½ of Same as Same as conventional sugar used to make white conventional method foam Muffin Whole, beaten and added Oil or melted All liquid and dry ingredients with liquid ingredients shortening added combines at one time with liquid ingredients Single Stage Whole, near end of mixing Dry ingredients and most of when last liquid added liquid added at some time as shortening; remainder of liquid added to egg after initial mixing period  Cooking the Cake ◈ Baking ◈ Steaming  Baking Cakes ◈ Greased pans are used for shortened cakes; ungreased pans for foam cakes ◈ Batter must be baked immediately in preheated ovens to avoid aircells from coalescing ◈ Temperatures of baking: 176º-190ºC or 350º-375ºF If too low, delayed coagulation or setting of egg protein occurs causing cell walls to collapse resulting in poor volume and texture If too high, tunnels are formed, cell walls coagulate before maximum leavening resulting in small volume, compact product  Baking Cakes ◈ At altitudes of 3000 ft above sea level, Adjustment 3,000 ft 5,500 ft 7,000 ft adjustments are 1. Reduced baking powder for each s follows: teaspoon by: 1/8 tsp 1/8-1/4 tsp ¼ tsp Generally, solid 2. Reduce sugar; ingredients are for each cup by: 1T 1-2 T 2-3 T reduced while 3. Increase liquid; liquids are for each cup 1-2 T 2-4 T 3-4 T increased; if the following adjustment are not made, cake is dry, crumbly and coarse  Baking Cakes ◈ Endpoint of cooking is when dent when touched with finger springs back, or a toothpick inserted comes out clean ◈ In cooling, shortened cakes are placed in pan upright on a cooling rack; should not be removed from the pan until lukewarm ◈ For foam cakes, pans are inverted while cooling  Steaming Cakes ◈ Perforated pan are lined with muslin “catcha” cloth ◈ A towel is placed beneath the cover of the steamer ◈ Steamed cakes have soft crust unlike baked cakes ◈ Cakes should be taken out of the steamer to cool  Cakes: Storing ◈ With or without icing may be stored in the freezer for future use by wrapping in foil or plastic; ◈ To Thaw, put out the package at room temperature and allow to thaw while still wrapped  Shortened Cakes: Causes of Failure ◈ Poor Volume Not enough baking powder Too little mixing Too much fat ◈ Sugary Crust Too much sugar Improper mixing ◈ Hump in crust Too hot oven Too much flour  Shortened Cakes: Causes of Failure ◈ Peaked, cracked top Too much flour Too little liquid Too hot oven Pan placed too high in oven ◈ Fallen center Too much fat or sugar To slow an oven Insufficient cooking  Shortened Cakes: Causes of Failure ◈ Hanging over sides of the pan Too much baking powder Too small pan ◈ Dryness Too much baking powder Too much flour Not enough liquid ◈ Sogginess Wrong proportions of liquid to flour Steaming during cooling  Shortened Cakes: Causes of Failure ◈ Heavy Layer in Bottom (Puto) Too little mixing Too much liquid Too much egg ◈ Tunnels or large holes Too high oven temperature Too much baking powder Failure to expel air when batter is in pan  Shortened Cakes: Causes of Failure ◈ Tough crumb Too little fat To little sugar Too much flour Too much mixing ◈ Crumbly or course grain Too much leavening Too low oven temperature ◈ Too fine grain and compact Ovemixing Too much liquid  Foam Cakes: Poor Characteristics and Causes ◈ Thick crust Too hot oven Too long baking ◈ Sticky crust Too much sugar Insufficient baking ◈ Cracked crust Overbeaten eggs Too hot oven too little liquid  Foam Cakes: Characteristics and Causes Poor ◈ Poor volume Insufficient beating of eggs Overfolding To low temperature of eggs when beaten Underbaking Pans were greased ◈ Sunken top Failure to invert pan while cooling Removing cake from pan before it is cooled  Foam Cakes: Characteristics and Causes Poor ◈ Uneven grain Overfolding Underbeaten and egg white Underfolding ◈ Coarse grain Underfolding Underbeaten eggs  Foam Cakes: Poor Characteristics ◈ Dryness Overbeaten egg whites Overbaking Too low temperature in oven ◈ Soggy Underbaking Undermixing ◈ Heavy layer in bottom (puto) Insufficient beaten of eggs Overfolding Standing too long before baking Too much liquid END