Week 7 A&P Lecture PDF

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology Eighth Edition Chapter 6 The Skeletal System PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by...

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology Eighth Edition Chapter 6 The Skeletal System PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Janet Brodsky, Ivy Tech Community College Jackie Reynolds, Richland College Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Today’s Agenda  Attendance  Week 5 Kahoot Review Lecture  Week 5 Kahoot https://create.kahoot.it/details/8ec78201-332b-4cfe-adf4- c77c5686515e  Learning Objectives 1.Describe the major functions of the skeletal system. 2.Classify bones according to shape, and compare the structures and functions of compact and spongy bone. 3.Compare the processes of intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. 4.Describe the remodeling and homeostatic processes of the skeletal system. 5.Summarize the effects of aging on the skeletal system. 6.Define a bone marking and name the components and functions of the axial and appendicular skeletons. 7.Identify the bones of the skull, discuss the differences in structure and function of the various vertebrae, and describe the roles of the thoracic cage. 8.Identify the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the upper and lower limbs and describe their various functions. 9.Contrast the major categories of joints and link their structural features to joint functions. 10.Describe how the structure and functions of synovial joints permits the movements of the skeleton. 11.Explain the relationship between joint structure and mobility of representative axial and appendicular joints. 12.Describe the interactions between the skeletal system and other body systems.  YouTube Link – Intro to Bones https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aUHh8uMdBso&t=2s – 3:26 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=inqWoakkiTc – 2:43 6.1 – Functions of the Skeletal System  The Skeletal System Components include: – Bones of the skeleton – Cartilages, joints, ligaments, connective tissue that stabilize or connect bones Functions of the Skeletal System 1. Support 2. Storage of minerals and lipids 3. Blood cell production 4. Protection 5. Leverage 6.2 – Bone Classification  Bone Tissue Characteristics Bone or osseous tissue – Supporting connective tissue containing cells in a matrix – Cells are called osteocytes – Matrix contains: ▪Calcium salts and collagen phosphate  Shapes of Bones a Long Bones c Flat Bones Parietal bone Humerus Sectional view b Short Bones d Irregular Bones Carpal bones Vertebra Figure 6-1 A Classification of Bones by Shape  Features of a Long Bone The diaphysis is the central shaft – Surrounds a marrow cavity, or medullary cavity, in the center filled with bone marrow The epiphyses are the expanded portions at each end – Covered with articular cartilage – Articulate with an adjacent bone at a joint  Coverings of a Long Bone Outer surface covered by periosteum – Inner cellular layer – Outer fibrous layer ▪Isolates bone from surrounding tissue ▪Forms attachments with fibers of tendons and ligaments Inner surfaces and spongy bone of marrow cavity covered by endosteum – Functions during bone growth and repair Figure 6-2 Structure of a Long Bone Articular cartilage Spongy bone Blood Proximal vessels epiphysis Epiphyseal line Marrow cavity Endosteum Compact bone Diaphysis Periosteum Fibrous layer of periosteum Cellular layer of periosteum Distal epiphysis Types of Bone Tissue in a Long Bone Compact bone Spongy bone  Histology of Compact Bone Basic functional unit is the osteon, or Haversian system – Osteocytes arranged in concentric layers (lamellae) – Layers surround a central canal, or Haversian canal ▪Central canals run parallel to surface of bone and contain blood vessels Perforating canals – Link blood vessels of central canal with blood vessels of periosteum and marrow cavity  Microscopic Features of Bone Central canal Osteon Canaliculi Lacunae Lamellae Osteon LM × 343 b In this thin section through compact bone, the intact matrix making up the lamellae appears lighter than the central canal, lacunae, and canaliculi, which appear black due to the presence of bone dust. Figure 6-3 The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.  The Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone Capillary Small vein Lamellae Endosteum Osteon Trabeculae of spongy bone a This diagrammatic view Vein depicts the parallel osteons of compact bone and the Perforating Central Artery trabecular network of spongy bone. canal canal Figure 6-3 The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone Characteristics of Compact Bone Covers all bone surfaces except inside joint capsules – Articular cartilage protects opposing bone surfaces here Parallel arrangement of osteons resists stress in specific direction – Withstands forces applied on either end of a long bone – Cannot tolerate moderate stress applied to the side of the shaft  Structural Features of Spongy Bone Has no osteons – Lamellae form rods or plates called trabeculae – No central canal – Still contains osteocytes, lacunae, and canaliculi Contains red bone marrow – Found in spaces between trabeculae  Functional Features of Spongy Bone Found in: – Locations not heavily stressed – Locations with stresses arriving from many different directions – Example: epiphyses of long bones where stresses transferred across joints Much lighter than compact bone – Reduces weight of the skeleton – Easier for muscles to move bones  Types of Bone Cells Osteoblasts – Produce new bone through a process called ossification – Osteoblasts surrounded by bony matrix change into osteocytes Osteocytes – Most abundant cells in bone – Mature cells that maintain bone structure by recycling calcium salts Osteoclasts – Secrete acid and enzymes that dissolve the matrix – Process releases minerals through resorption  Q&A https://create.kahoot.it/details/d8eb9132-a2e9-463e-99ee- bd85c36cf4eb Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 6.3 – Ossification & Appositional Growth Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Bone Formation Embryonic development of bone – Begins at week 6 as a cartilaginous formation – Replaced with bone, a process called ossification Two types 1. Intramembranous ossification 2. Endochondral ossification Calcification occurs during ossification – Can also occur in other tissues besides bone  Intramembranous Ossification Occurs during fetal development, starting week 6 – Bone develops within sheets of fibrous connective tissue Begins in an ossification center Osteoblasts differentiate from connective tissue stem cells Bone matrix formation extends outward Blood vessels infiltrate the bone Blood vessels grow into area and are trapped within developing bone, become deposit areas of bone marrow Primarily cancellous bone formation Flat bones of skull, mandible formed in this manner  Endochondral Ossification Process of formation for most bones of the skeleton Begins with hyaline cartilage models Cartilage replaced by true bone  Endochondral Ossification 1 2 3 4 5 Chondrocytes Newly derived Blood vessels penetrate The bone of the shaft Blood vessels invade the at the center osteoblasts the cartilage. New thickens, and the epiphyses and osteoblasts of the growing cover the shaft osteoblasts form a cartilage near each form secondary centers cartilage of the cartilage primary ossification epiphysis is replaced of ossification. model enlarge in a thin layer of center inside the by shafts of bone. and then die bone. cartilage model. Articular cartilage as the matrix calcifies. Epiphysis Enlarging chondrocytes within Epiphyseal calcifying cartilage Epiphysis Marrow matrix cavity Marrow Primary cavity Blood ossification vessel center Diaphysis Superficial bone Secondary Spongy center of Epiphyseal ossification bone Bone cartilage formation Hyaline cartilage model Figure 6-5 Endochondral Ossification  Epiphyseal Line At puberty, bone growth accelerates due to increased sex hormone production Osteoblasts produce bone faster than the epiphyseal cartilage can grow and expand – Epiphyseal cartilages get narrower until disappear ▪Called epiphyseal closure X-rays of adult bones show former location of epiphyseal cartilage as epiphyseal line Epiphyseal line  Figure 6-6 Appositional Bone Growth 1 2 3 4 Infant: As the Child: Osteoblasts deposit Young adult: The Adult: Osteoblasts and bone lengthens, new bone on the outer marrow cavity continues osteoclasts continue to it also enlarges surface and osteoclasts to enlarge as bone is remodel the bone to adapt in diameter. erode bone from the inner added to the outer to stresses encountered surface, enlarging the surface and eroded on during daily activity. marrow cavity. the inner surface. Bone Bone resorbed by deposited by osteoclasts osteoclasts  Timing of Epiphyseal Closure Varies from bone to bone – Digits close early – Arm, leg, and pelvis bones close later Varies from person to person – Different timing in males versus females ▪Mostly due to differences in sex hormones ▪Later closure in males  Requirements for Bone Growth Mineral supply – Calcium salts (calcium and phosphate) – Absorbed from mother’s bloodstream during prenatal development Vitamin D3 – Plays role in calcium metabolism ▪Liver and kidney process into calcitriol that stimulates calcium and phosphate absorption – Manufactured by epidermal cells exposed to U V radiation – Also obtained from dietary supplements and dairy products – Deficiency leads to softening of bones ▪Condition called osteomalacia in adults and rickets in children  Requirements for Bone Growth Cont. Vitamin A and vitamin C – Provide support for osteoblasts Various hormones – Growth hormone – Thyroid hormone – Sex hormones – Calcium-balancing hormones (P T H and calcitonin)  Q&A https://create.kahoot.it/details/ecd455c7-cd61-491d- b6a8-a4845678ef7f Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 6.4 – Bone Growth & Development Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Bone Remodeling Process Remodeling process recycles and renews organic and mineral components of bone matrix – Osteocytes maintain matrix, continually removing and replacing calcium salts – Osteoclasts continually remove matrix – Osteoblasts continually build matrix – Normally activity is balanced  Role of Bone Remodeling Turnover of minerals gives bone ability to adapt to new stresses Heavily stressed bones are thicker and stronger – Regular exercise important to maintaining bone structure Bones receiving lower than normal stress are thinner and more brittle – Inactivity (such as using crutches) results in loss of bone mass  Rate of Bone Remodeling Rate of remodeling varies with age and type of bone – In young adults, nearly 1/ 5 of the skeleton is recycled and replaced each year – Spongy bone remodeled more frequently than compact  Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body – 99% of calcium is deposited in the skeleton – The calcium shifts between blood and bone Essential mineral for many physiological processes – Examples: neuron and muscle cell function Very close regulation required – Small changes in calcium ion concentrations affect cellular function – Larger changes can cause convulsions and death – Calcium balance in bone and in blood is regulated by: ▪Parathyroid hormone (PT H) and calcitriol to raise blood calcium levels ▪Calcitonin to lower blood calcium levels in body fluids  Clinical Note Types of Fractures Spongy bone of Cartilage of internal callus external callus Fracture hematoma External callus Spongy bone of Dead bone Bone fragments external callus Periosteum Internal callus External callus Fracture hematoma formation. Callus formation. The cells of the Spongy bone formation. Compact bone formation. 1 Immediately after the fracture, 2 intact 3 Osteoblasts replace the central 4 A swelling marks the location endosteum and periosteum extensive bleeding occurs. A large blood undergo rapid cycles of cell division, and cartilage of the external callus with of the fracture. Over time, this region clot, or fracture hematoma (hemato-, the daughter cells migrate into the spongy bone, which then unites the will be remodeled by osteoblasts and blood; + tumere, to swell), soon closes off fracture zone. An internal callus (callum, broken ends. Fragments of dead bone osteoclasts, and little evidence of the the injured vessels and leaves a fibrous hard skin) forms as a network of spongy and the areas of bone closest to the fracture will remain. The repair may be “good meshwork in the damaged area. The lack of bone unites the inner edges of the break are resorbed and replaced. The as new” or the bone may be slightly thicker blood flow kills local osteocytes, broadening fracture. An external callus of cartilage ends of the fracture are now held firmly and stronger than normal at the fracture site. the area affected. Dead bone soon extends and bone encircles and stabilizes the in place and can withstand normal Under comparable stresses, a second fracture along the shaft in either direction. outer edges of the fracture. stresses from muscle contractions. will generally occur at a different site. Figure 6-6 Appositional Bone Growth 6.5 – Osteopenia Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Osteopenia and Aging Bones become thinner and weaker as normal part of aging Osteopenia – Inadequate ossification that naturally occurs as part of the aging process – Osteoblast activity slows, Osteoclast activity remains constant – Related to estrogen and testosterone levels ▪Women lose about 8% of skeletal mass each decade ▪Men lose about 3% of skeletal mass each decade – Process accelerates after menopause, loss of estrogen – Can become osteoporosis, a more severe form 6.6 – Distinguishing Bones of the Skeleton Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Bone Markings Landmark features on the surfaces of bones are called bone markings or surface features Elevations, processes, or projections – Where tendons and ligaments attach – Where bones articulate Depressions, grooves, and openings – Where blood vessels and nerves pass through the bone  Skeletal Divisions Skeletal system consists of 206 bones Two divisions 1. Axial skeleton ▪ Skull ▪ Rib cage ▪ Spinal column 2. Appendicular skeleton ▪ Appendages ▪ Pectoral and pelvic girdles attached to arms and legs Axial and Appendicular Skeletons AXIAL SKELETON 80 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126 Cranium 8 Skull Face 14 Clavicle 2 Skull and Pectoral 4 associated 29 (girdles) Auditory bones 6 Scapula 2 ossicles Associated Hyoid 1 bones Sternum 1 Humerus 2 Rib 25 cage Radius 2 Ribs 24 Upper Ulna 2 60 limbs Carpal bones 16 Metacarpal 10 bones Phalanges (proximal, 28 middle, distal) Pelvic Hip bone 2 2 girdle Vertebrae 24 Femur 2 Vertebral Sacrum 1 26 column Patella 2 Coccyx 1 Tibia 2 Lower Fibula 2 60 limbs Tarsal bones 14 Metatarsal 10 bones Phalanges 28 Figure 6-9 The Axial and Appendicular Divisions of the Skeleton  Q&A https://create.kahoot.it/details/8963e3bf-479f-4579-a414- 9fbd9fd3d5a8 6.7 – Axial Skeleton Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Axial Skeleton Forms longitudinal axis of body Contains 80 bones subdivided into: 1. Skull bones (8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones) 2. The bones associated with the skull (6 ossicles, or ear bones, and the hyoid bone) 3. Bones of the thoracic cage (25) 4. Bones of the vertebral column (26)  Functions of the Axial Skeleton Supports and protects the brain, spinal cord, and organs in the ventral body cavity Provides surface area for attachment of muscles that: 1. Move the head, neck, and trunk 2. Perform respiration 3. Stabilize elements of the appendicular skeleton Houses brain and sense organs Figure 6-11 The Adult Skull Sagittal suture Parietal Bone Frontal Bone Coronal suture Supra-orbital foramen Nasal Bone Sphenoid Ethmoid Optic canal Middle nasal concha (part of ethmoid) Superior orbital fissure Palatine Bone Temporal Bone Mastoid process Lacrimal Bone Zygomatic Bone Inferior Nasal Concha Maxilla Infra-orbital foramen Bony nasal septum Perpendicular plate Mandible of ethmoid Vomer a Anterior view Frontal Bone Maxilla Palatine Bone Zygomatic Bone Sphenoid Zygomatic arch Temporal Bone Vomer Styloid process Mandibular fossa External acoustic meatus Occipital Bone Mastoid process Foramen magnum Occipital condyle Lambdoid suture External occipital protuberance b Inferior  The Frontal Bone Forms the forehead and the roof of the orbits, or eye sockets Frontal sinuses – Air-filled cavities above the orbit ▪Lined with mucous membrane ▪Connect with the nasal cavity ▪Reduce weight of the bone  The Parietal Bones Paired bones located posterior to frontal bone Form the roof and superior walls of the cranium Interlock along the midline of the cranium forming the sagittal suture Articulate with frontal bone along coronal suture  The Occipital Bone Forms the posterior and inferior portions of the cranium Articulates with two parietal bones at the lambdoid suture Key bone markings – Foramen magnum ▪Passageway surrounding the connection between the brain and the spinal cord – Occipital condyles ▪Rounded surfaces on either side of the foramen magnum ▪Articulate with the first vertebra  The Temporal Bones Form part of both sides of the cranium and zygomatic arches Articulate with the parietal bones at the squamous suture House the auditory ossicles in middle ear Key bone markings – External acoustic (or auditory) meatus – Mandibular fossa – Mastoid process – Styloid process  Bones of the Face Protect and support entrances to digestive and respiratory tracts Sites for attachment of muscles for facial expression and manipulation of food Only one (the mandible) is movable  The Maxillary Bones Articulate with all other facial bones except for the mandible Largest facial bones Form the floor and medial parts of the orbit rims, the walls of the nasal cavity, and the anterior roof of the mouth (bony palate) Key bone marking – Maxillary sinuses ▪Produce mucus that drains into nasal cavities ▪Lighten the weight of the bones  The Zygomatic Bones Each zygomatic bone articulates with the frontal bone and the maxillae, forming the lateral wall of the orbit Temporal process bone marking of the zygomatic bone forms the zygomatic arch, or cheekbone, when meeting the zygomatic process of the temporal bone Nasal Complex Paranasal sinuses drain into the nasal cavities Nasal septum Frontal sinus – Formed from ethmoid Ethmoidal cells bone and vomer Sphenoidal sinus Maxillary sinus – Separates right and left portions of nasal cavity Figure 6-13 The Paranasal Sinuses  The Hyoid Bone Small and U-shaped Not attached to any other bone Functions – Serves as base for muscles associated Greater horn with the larynx Lesser horn (voicebox), tongue, Body and throat – Supports and Figure 6-14 The Hyoid Bone. stabilizes the larynx  The Skulls of Infants and Children Areas of fibrous connective tissue that have not yet ossified Fontanelles (completed around 2 months Anterior fontanelle Posterior fontanelle after birth) Coronal suture Fontanelles Parietal Occipital bone bone Frontal – Called “soft spots” bone – Allow for easier delivery of Frontal suture Sagittal suture the head – Brain enlarges more rapidly Frontal bone Parietal bone than skull Coronal suture Lambdoid suture – Fontanelles disappear and b Superior view skull growth is finished by Figure 6-15 The Skull of an Infant about age four  The Vertebral Column Also called the spine Consists of 26 bones – 24 vertebrae – The sacrum – The coccyx, or tailbone Provides weight-bearing column of support and protection of spinal cord  Vertebral Column Subdivisions Cervical region – 7 cervical vertebrae of the neck (C1 to C7) Thoracic region – 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) Lumbar region (L1 to L5) – 5 lumbar vertebrae Sacral region – 5 fused vertebrae form the single sacrum Coccygeal region – 3-5 fused vertebrae form the coccyx  Spinal Curvature Primary curves – Are present at birth – Include the thoracic and sacral curves Secondary curves – Develop several months after birth – Include the cervical and lumbar curves All four spinal curves fully developed by age 10 Three examples of abnormal spinal curvatures – Kyphosis (exaggerated thoracic curvature) – Lordosis (exaggerated lumbar curvature) – Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curvature)  The Vertebral Column Spinal Curves Vertebral Regions Primary curves develop Regions are defined before birth, and secondary by structural curves after birth. characteristics of individual vertebrae. C1 The cervical curve, a secondary C2 curve, develops as the infant learns C3 to balance the weight of the head on C4 Cervical the vertebrae of the neck. C5 (7 vertebrae) C6 C7 T 1 T2 T3 T4 T5 The thoracic curve, a T6 primary curve, provides room for the thoracic T7 Thoracic organs. T8 (12 vertebrae) T9 T10 T11 T12 L1 The lumbar curve, a secondary L2 curve, balances the weight of the trunk over the lower limbs. L3 Lumbar This curve develops with the (5 vertebrae) ability to stand. L4 L5 The sacral curve, a Sacral primary curve, provides room for various abdominopelvic organs. Coccygeal Figure 6-16 The Vertebral Column  Bone Markings of Vertebrae Transverse processes – Project laterally or dorsolaterally – Sites for muscle attachment Spinous process – Projects posteriorly from the laminae – Forms bumps that can be felt along midline of back – Attachment locations for back muscles  Bone Markings of Vertebrae Articular processes – Processes of successive vertebrae contact one another at the articular facets Gaps between articulated vertebrae form the intervertebral foramina – Allow passage of nerves to and from spinal cord  Q&A https://create.kahoot.it/details/f49622c3-5bc1-497a-9fc6- 27455bdc96e3 Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 6.8 – Appendicular Skeleton Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Distinctive Features of the Cervical Vertebrae C1–C7 Body is relatively small Vertebral arch Spinous process Oval, concave vertebral body Lamina Relatively large vertebral Pedicle Vertebral foramen Superior articular foramen process Transverse Superior process articular Stumpy spinous process (C1 Vertebral facet body Transverse doesn’t even have one), foramen usually with notched tip a Cervical vertebra, superior view Transverse foramina within Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the transverse processes (unique Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions. for these vertebrae—vertebral artery goes to brain)  The First Two Cervical Vertebrae C1 is the atlas – Holds up the skull – Articulates with the occipital Dens (odontoid process) Transverse ligament condyles of occipital bone – Allows for a specific “nodding yes” movement Atlas (C1) C2 is the axis Articulates with occipital condyles – Has a projection up toward the Axis (C2) atlas, called the dens, or Articulates with atlas odontoid process The atlas/axis complex – Allows for rotational “shaking Figure 6-18 The Atlas and Axis. the head no” movement  Distinctive Features of the Thoracic Vertebrae T1–T12 Spinous Transverse process process Size of body enlarges as Lamina progresses form Transverse costal facet. for inferior rib Heart-shaped body; larger Superior articular Vertebral than cervical vertebrae facet Pedicle foramen Large, slender spinous Superior costal facet for superior rib Vertebral process that points body inferiorly Costal facets that b Thoracic vertebra, superior view articulate with the ribs Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.  Distinctive Features of the Lumbar Vertebrae L1–L5 The largest vertebrae with Spinous process Superior articular facet Lamina Superior articular thickest intervertebral discs; Transverse process process Transverse support most of body weight process Vertebral Thicker body and more oval foramen Pedicle than thoracic vertebrae Vertebral body Massive, stumpy spinous process projecting posteriorly c Lumbar vertebra, superior view Bladelike transverse process Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the lacking articulations for ribs Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.  Distinctive Features of the Sacrum Triangular-shaped bone Articular Entrance to process sacral canal Consists of five fused vertebrae Protects organs in pelvic cavity Has lateral articulations with pelvic Lateral sacral crest girdle Median Broad surface provides attachment sacral crest Sacral sites for muscles, especially those hiatus for leg movements Coccyx a A posterior view Figure 6-19 The Sacrum and Coccyx  Distinctive Features of the Coccyx Usually four fused vertebrae – Fusion not complete until late in adulthood – May fuse to sacrum in elderly people Provides attachment for muscles that close the anal opening  The Thoracic Cage Consists of thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum – Forms the walls of the thoracic cavity – Protects heart, lungs, and internal organs – Ribs and sternum form rib cage – Ribs, or costal bones, are classified as flat bones  Ribs or Costal Bones Twelve pairs Ten pairs connect to sternum by hyaline cartilages (either directly or indirectly) First seven pairs of true ribs connect to sternum by separate costal cartilages Ribs 8-12 are false ribs because do not attach directly to sternum – Ribs 8-10 are ribs whose costal cartilages fuse and merge together with cartilage 7 – Last two pairs (11 and 12) are floating ribs because have no connection with the sternum  The Sternum Also called the breastbone 1. Broad, triangular manubrium ▪ Articulates with the clavicles of the appendicular skeleton and cartilages of first pair of ribs ▪ Contains shallow indentation called jugular notch 2. Elongated body 3. Inferior tip, the xiphoid process ▪ Can be broken by impact or strong pressure such as with incorrect placement of hands during CPR  The Thoracic Cage Jugular notch T1 T1 1 Clavicular articulation 1 Sternum 2 2 Manubrium 3 True ribs 3 4 (ribs 1–7) Body True ribs (ribs 1–7) 4 Xiphoid 5 5 process 6 Costal 6 10 cartilages 7 T11 T11 7 T12 11 11 8 T12 8 12 Vertebrochondral False ribs False ribs ribs 9 (ribs 8–12) 9 12 (ribs 8–12) (ribs 8–10) 10 Floating ribs (ribs 11–12) a Anterior view, showing the ribs, b Anterior view of the ribs, sternum, and sternum, and costal cartilages costal cartilages, shown diagrammatically Figure 6-20 The Thoracic Cage  The Pectoral Girdle Also called the shoulder girdle Connects the upper limbs to the trunk Consists of the clavicle and the scapula – Both bones are extremely important muscle attachment sites  The Clavicle Clavicle – S-shaped bone – Articulates with manubrium at sternal end – Articulates with the acromion of the scapula at the acromial end Acromial end Sternal end LATERAL MEDIAL Facet for articulation with acromion Figure 6-21 The Clavicle  Features of the Scapula Key bone markings – The glenoid cavity, or glenoid fossa ▪Articulates with the humerus to form the shoulder joint – Acromion ▪Larger, posterior process that articulates with the distal end of the clavicle (landmark for injection)  The Scapula Triangular bone Acromion Superior Supraspinous Coracoid Acromion angle fossa process Coracoid Superior process border Acromion Coracoid Superior process border Neck Lateral angle Glenoid Scapular Subscapular Scapular cavity spine fossa Body spine Infraspinous fossa Lateral border Body Medial border Medial Lateral border border Lateral border Inferior angle Inferior angle a Anterior view b Lateral view c Posterior view Figure 6-22 The Scapula  The Upper Limb Arm, or brachium Lesser Greater tubercle tubercle – The humerus Greater Head tubercle Anatomical Intertubercular neck groove – Extends from the scapula Surgical neck to the elbow Deltoid tuberosity Groove for radial nerve Forearm Shaft – The radius and ulna Wrist and hand Lateral – The carpals, metacarpals, epicondyle Olecranon fossa Coronoid Radial and phalanges fossa fossa Medial epicondyle Capitulum Trochlea Trochlea Condyle a Anterior surface b Posterior surface Figure 6-23 The Humerus.  The Radius and Ulna Radius is on lateral side of forearm, while ulna is on medial side Key bone marking of the ulna – Olecranon is the point of the elbow Figure 6-24 Radius and Ulna Olecranon Trochlear notch Coronoid process Head of radius Radial notch Neck of radius Ulnar tuberosity Radial tuberosity Ulna Radius Ulna b Lateral view of ulna, showing trochlear notch Interosseous membrane Distal radio-ulnar joint Ulnar head Styloid process Styloid process of ulna of radius a Anterior view  The Bones of the Hands Five metacarpal bones – Form the palm of the hand – Articulate with the phalanges or finger bones Each hand has 14 phalangeal bones – Proximal, middle, and distal in each finger – Proximal and distal in the thumb, or pollex All classified as long bones  The Carpal Bones of the Wrist Eight bones in two rows Styloid process Styloid process of ulna of radius Ulna Radius Proximal Distal Carpals Carpals Scaphoid Trapezium Classified as short bones Lunate Trapezoid Triquetrum Capitate Pisiform Hamate I V IV III II Metacarpal bones Phalanges Proximal Middle Distal Figure 6-25 The Bones of the Wrist and Hand  The Pelvic Girdle Articulates with the femur thigh bones – More massive than the pectoral girdle – Firmly attached to the axial skeleton – Consists of two irregularly-shaped large hip bones, or coxal bones (also called os coxae) ▪Each a fusion of three bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis – Hip bones articulate with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints and with the femur at the acetabulum bone marking  The Pelvis The hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx – Stabilized by a network of ligaments Differences in male versus female pelvis – Females: smoother, less prominent markings – Adaptations for childbearing: broad, low pelvis, larger pelvic outlet, broader pubic angle Pelvic outlet, Pelvic outlet, relatively broad relatively narrow 100˚ 90˚ or more or less a Male b Female Figure 6-27 Differences in the Anatomy of the Pelvis in Males and Females  The Coxal or Hip Bones Key bone markings – Ilium is superior and largest component (the hip) ▪Superior margin forms the iliac crest – Ischium has a rough projection called ischial tuberosity ▪Supports body’s weight when sitting – Ischium and pubis fuse, creating the circle of the obturator foramen – Pubic bones join at the pubic symphysis Figure 6-26 Hip Bones and Pelvis Hip Bone Hip Bone Ilium Ilium Sacrum Coccyx Ischium Pubis Pubis Ischium Ischial tuberosity a Right hip bone of the pelvis, lateral view c Pelvis, anterior view  The Lower Limb Bones of the thigh – The femur, or thigh bone The patella, or kneecap Bones of the leg – The tibia and fibula Bones of the ankle and foot – The tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges  The Femur Longest and heaviest bone in the body Key bone markings – Head articulates with pelvis at acetabulum – Greater and lesser trochanters ▪Large, rough projections extending laterally from neck and shaft – Large epicondyles on distal end – Lateral and medial condyles are articulating surfaces for tibia  The Patella or Kneecap Glides over anterior surface between lateral and medial condyles of femur Irregular-shaped bone, sometimes called sesamoid (like sesame seed)  The Tibia Large, medial shinbone Key bone marking – Medial malleolus ▪Large distal process that articulates with the ankle  The Fibula Slender bone, not for weight-bearing Runs parallel and lateral to tibia Does not articulate with the femur Lateral malleolus bone marking is distal end of fibula Interosseus membrane connects tibia and fibula  The Lower Limb Articular surface of head Lateral tibial condyle Greater Medial tibial Greater Neck trochanter condyle trochanter Head of fibula Tibial tuberosity Lesser trochanter Interosseous Linea membrane aspera Shaft of femur Anterior margin Tibia Intercondylar Fibula fossa Patellar surface Medial Lateral Lateral epicondyle epicondyle epicondyle Medial Lateral condyle Lateral condyle condyle Medial malleolus Lateral malleolus (tibia) (fibula) a Anterior surface b Posterior surface Inferior articular surface Figure 6-28 The Femur  The Bones of the Ankle and Foot Seven ankle or tarsal bones (short bones): – Talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms Only the talus articulates with the tibia and fibula Largest tarsal is the calcaneus, or heel bone Metatarsals and phalanges are in a similar pattern as in the hand (all long bones) – Great toe is the hallux  Q&A https://create.kahoot.it/details/91126a19-1696-4f8f-97ca- fbb1826ebcd2 Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  6.9 – Joints Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Categories of Joints, or Articulations Classified by structure – Based on anatomy of joints, how the bones are held together – Includes fibrous, cartilaginous (both with limited movement), and synovial (freely movable) Classified by function – Based on range of motion or amount of mobility – Includes synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), and diarthrosis (freely movable)  Immovable Joints, or Synarthroses Classified as either fibrous (more common) or cartilaginous – Suture ▪Connects skull bones with dense connective tissue – Gomphosis A ligament binding each tooth in the socket – Synchondrosis ▪A hyaline cartilaginous connection as in between the first pair of ribs and the sternum (all other rib-sternum joints are synovial)  Slightly Movable Joints, or Amphiarthroses – Classified as either fibrous or cartilaginous (more common) – Syndesmosis ▪Fibrous joint connected by a ligament, attaches tibia to fibula and radius to ulna – Symphysis ▪Joint between bones separated by fibrocartilage pad, between pubic areas of coxal bones as well as intervertebral discs  Freely Movable Joints, or Diarthroses Synovial joints are the most common joints Marrow cavity With a wide range of motion Spongy bone Periosteum Ends of bones covered with Components of Synovial Joints articular cartilages Joint capsule Synovial membrane Joint surrounded with a fibrous Articular cartilages Joint cavity containing joint capsule synovial fluid Inner surfaces lined with the Compact bone synovial membrane Synovial fluid within reduces a Synovial joint, sagittal section friction, lubricates the surfaces, Figure 6-31 The Structure of nourishes cartilage a Synovial Joint  Additional Structures of a Synovial Joint Additional padding – Menisci in the knee and shoulder Quadriceps tendon – Fat pads Patella Accessory Structures Joint capsule Femur of a Knee Joint Synovial Bursa – Bursae are packets of membrane Joint cavity Fat pad connective tissue Articular Meniscus cartilage Ligaments Tibia containing synovial fluid Extracapsular ligament (patellar) Intracapsular – Reduce friction and absorb ligament (cruciate) shock b Ligaments join bone to bone Knee joint, sagittal section Figure 6-31 The Structure of a Synovial Joint  Classificaiton of Joints Table 6-1 A Functional and Structural Classification of Joints Functional Category Structural Category and Type Description Example SYNARTHROSIS (NO MOVEMENT) Fibrous Suture Fibrous connections plus interlocked Between the bones of the skull surfaces Fibrous Gomphosis Fibrous connections plus insertion in Between the teeth and bony sockets in the bony socket (tooth alveolus) maxillae and mandible Cartilaginous Synchondrosis Interposition of cartilage bridge or Between the first pair of ribs and the plate sternum; epiphyseal cartilages AMPHIARTHROSIS (LITTLE MOVEMENT) Fibrous Syndesmosis Ligamentous connection Between the tibia and fibula Cartilaginous Symphysis Connection by a fibrocartilage pad Between the two pubic bones; between adjacent vertebrae of spinal column DIARTHROSIS (FREE MOVEMENT) Synovial Complex joint bounded by joint Numerous; subdivided by range of motion Capsule and containing synovial fluid (Spotlight Figure 6-35) 6.10 – Synovial Joints Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Types of Synovial Joint Movement Plane or Gliding movements – Two opposing surfaces slide past each other, between the carpal bones Angular movements include: – Flexion and extension: decreasing or increasing the angle between articulating bones ▪Moving the forearm toward humerus or away from it – Hyperextension is extension beyond anatomical position  Other Angular Movement Abduction and adduction: moving a limb away from or toward the midline of the body Circumduction: moves the limbs in a 360 degree circle, like drawing a circle with your leg Abduction Abduction Adduction Adduction Abduction Adduction Abduction Adduction b Abduction/adduction d Circumduction Figure 6-32 Angular Movements  Rotational Joint Movements Rotation involves turning around the longitudinal axis of the body or limb, turning the head left or right Rotation of the distal end of the radius across the ulna Supination Pronation – Pronation moves palm from facing-front to facing- back b – Supination moves palm from facing-back to facing- Supination front Pronation – Important for opening jars, Figure 6-33 Rotational Movements. tuning doorknobs  Special Joint Movements Inversion and Eversion: twists the sole of the foot inward or outward laterally Dorsiflexion and Plantar flexion: elevates the sole at the ankle or points the foot downward – Notice that flexion is in both terms Opposition and Reposition: moves the thumb toward the palm to grasp or returns the thumb from opposition Elevation and Depression: moves a structure superiorly and inferiorly, closing and opening your mouth or shrugging your shoulders Lateral flexion: the vertebral column bends to the side  Types of Synovial Joints Plane or Gliding joints have slight movement – Mostly bone surfaces slide across each other, so movement is slight Hinge joints permit angular movement in one plane – Like opening and closing a door – The joints between the tibia and femur, ulna and humerus, tibia and talus, and between phalanges Saddle joints permit angular movement in two planes – Two bones each have a concave face on one axis and convex on the other, like a rider in a saddle – The carpal-metacarpal joint of the thumb and the joint between the sternum and clavicle Pivot joints permit rotation only, in one plane – The axis-atlas joint and the ulna-radius joint  Types of Synovial Joints Condylar joints, or ellipsoidal joints, permit angular movement in two planes – An oval surface of a bone fits within a depression on the opposing bone – Gives a bending at the joint or side to side movement – Example joints: metacarpal to carpal, radius to carpals Ball-and-socket joints permit angular movement in all planes – The end of one bone is a round head that fits within the cup- shaped depression in the other bone – The joints of the humerus and ulna, as well as the coxal bone and femur 6.11 – Appendicular & Intervertebral Joints  Types of Articulations between Vertebrae Gliding joints between the superior and inferior articular processes of adjoining vertebrae Symphyseal joints between the vertebral bodies – Separated and padded by intervertebral discs ▪Fibrocartilage surrounding a gelatinous core – Problems with the fibrocartilage discs ▪Weakening of fibrocartilage, leading to herniation of disc ▪Discs compress with age, causing decrease in height Figure 6-36 Intervertebral Joints Intervertebral foramen Intervertebral Superior Disc articular facet Inner gelatinous layer Outer fibrocartilage layer Spinal cord Posterior ligaments Spinal nerve Superior articular process Inferior Anterior articular longitudinal process ligament  The Shoulder Joint The greatest range of motion – Most frequently Ligaments interconnecting clavicle and scapula dislocated Tendon of – Stability sacrificed for supraspinatus Clavicle muscle Acromion mobility Joint capsule Ball-and-socket joint Subdeltoid bursa Scapula Coracoid process Synovial Articular Contains several bursae to membrane cartilages Joint Humerus cavity reduce friction Joint capsule Muscles that surround and move the shoulder joint form Figure 6-37 The Shoulder Joint the rotator cuff  The Elbow Joint Consists of two parts Coronoid fossa – Hinge joint between the Joint capsule Humerus Synovial membrane humerus and ulna Coronoid Olecranon fossa – Weak joint between the process Joint Tendon of capsule humerus and radius biceps brachii Triceps tendon Hinge portion is very stable Trochlea – Humerus and ulna Olecranon Bursa interlock Ulna Radius Articular cartilage – Very thick joint capsule Figure 6-38 The Elbow Joint – Joint capsule reinforced by strong ligaments  The Hip Joint Ball-and-socket joint formed from head of the femur and the acetabulum Extremely stable joint – Rounded femur head fits deep into acetabulum of coxal bone – Strong joint capsule – Joint capsule reinforced by several ligaments and fibrocartilage – Strong surrounding muscles – Hip fractures more common than hip dislocations  The Hip Joint Greater Reinforcing trochanter ligaments Lesser trochanter a The hip joint is extremely strong and stable, in part because of the massive joint capsule and surrounding ligaments. Acetabulum Articular cartilage Synovial membrane Joint capsule Fat pad Ligament of the femoral head Joint capsule Femur b This sectional view of the right hip shows the structure of the joint and the position of the ligament of the femoral head. Figure 6-39 The Hip Joint  The Knee Joint Three different joints make up the knee – A hinge joint between femur and tibia – A plane joint between patella and femur – Two joints between femur and tibia ▪medial to medial condyles and lateral to lateral condyles on both bones Medial and lateral menisci – Fibrocartilage pads between femoral and tibial condyles – Cushion and conform to changing shape with femoral movement  Ligaments of the Knee Joint Fat pads and bursae assist in reducing friction Patellar ligament – Attaches to anterior surface of tibia – Continuation of quadriceps tendon (holds the patella) – Provides support to front of the knee Posterior ligaments stabilize the back of the knee Collateral ligaments reinforce the sides of the knee Cruciate ligaments (anterior and posterior) inside the joint capsule, attach the tibia to femur  The Knee Joint Patellar Quadriceps surface Ligaments tendon that Stabilize the Knee Joint Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) Lateral Medial Joint Anterior cruciate condyle condyle capsule Patella ligament (ACL) Tibial collateral ligament Menisci Medial Fibular collateral Patellar ligament ligament Tibia Lateral Cut tendon of biceps femoris muscle Fibula Fibula Tibia a Anterior view, superficial layer b Deep anterior view, flexed Figure 6-40 The Knee Joint  Q&A https://create.kahoot.it/details/48a67e4d-363b-45f9- 808d-b21def9dc988 6.12 – Skeletal System  Skeletal Support of Other Body Systems Balance between bone formation and recycling involves interactions with other systems – Bones provide attachment sites for muscles – Bones are extensively interconnected with cardiovascular and lymphatic systems – Physiologically, bones are under the control of the endocrine system – Digestive and urinary systems provide calcium and phosphate for bone growth  FoL Resources Study Questions on Skeletons Study Questions on Joints Skeletal Muscle Tissue Study Outline Skeletal System Study Outline Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved