Week 2 Cooper et al. CH04.pdf

Chapter 4: Measuring Behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Definition of Measurement The process of apply...

Chapter 4: Measuring Behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Definition of Measurement The process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of events using a standard set of rules Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Researchers Need Measurement ❑ How scientists operationalize empiricism Without measurement, science is guesswork and opinion ❑ Applied behavior analysts measure behavior to answer questions Basis for talking about behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Practitioners Need Measurement ❑ To evaluate effects of intervention Before and after treatment During treatment ❑ To guide decision making ❑ To prevent mistakes Continue ineffective treatment Discontinue effective treatment Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Benefits of Measurement ❑ Optimize effectiveness ❑ Verify legitimacy of treatments ❑ Identify and end use of pseudoscience ❑ Accountability ❑ Meet ethical standards Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measurable Dimensions of Behavior ❑ Dimensions are distinct features that can be measured ❑ Three fundamental properties Repeatability or countability: behavior can be counted Temporal extent: duration Temporal locus: when behavior occurs Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measures Based on Repeatability ❑ Count Number of responses emitted during an observation period ❑ Reported as frequency count ❑ Measures of count alone do not provide sufficient information for analysis Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measures Based on Repeatability ❑ Rate/Frequency Ratio of count per observation period ❑ More meaningful than count alone ❑ Include counting time for reference ❑ Rate of correct and incorrect responses helpful in skill development ❑ Reported as number per standard unit of time Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Guidelines for Using Rate ❑ Take complexity of response into account ❑ Useful measure for free operants ❑ Not appropriate for responses within discrete trials ❑ Not appropriate for continuous behavior over extended period Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measures Based on Repeatability ❑ Celeration Measure of the change in rate of responding per unit of time ❑ Reported using Standard Celeration Chart ❑ Captures behavior acceleration and deceleration Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Precision Teaching Ogden Lindsley Precision Teaching is a method of teaching that focuses on directly measuring student performance and making data-driven decisions to improve learning outcomes. The primary goal of Precision Teaching is to build **fluency**— the combination of accuracy and speed in performing a task. Fluency is seen as essential for long-term retention and the ability to apply skills in new situations. This data is typically plotted on a **Standard Celeration Chart (SCC), which is a logarithmic chart that helps visualize changes in behavior over time. The SCC allows teachers to see trends in student performance and make adjustments to instruction as needed.  Measures Based on Temporal Extent ❑ Duration The amount of time a behavior occurs ❑ Total duration of session ❑ Duration of each occurrence ❑ Reported in standard time units ❑ Count and duration measures provide different pictures of same behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measures Based on Temporal Locus ❑ Response latency Measure of elapsed time between onset of stimulus and initiation of response ❑ Typically reported as mean, median, and range Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measures Based on Temporal Locus ❑ Interresponse time Amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a response class ❑ Direct measure of temporal locus and related to rate ❑ Reported as mean, median, and range Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Derivative Measures ❑ Percentage A ratio formed by combining the same dimensional qualities Expresses proportional quantity ❑ Proportion of correct to incorrect ❑ Proportion of observation intervals when behavior occurred Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Considerations for Using Percentage ❑ Often misunderstood, used incorrectly ❑ Most accurate with divisor of 100 or more ❑ Percentage may be misleading ❑ Limited use because has no dimensional quantity ❑ Sets artificial limits on behavior change Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Derivative Measures ❑ Trials-to-criterion Measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance ❑ Other measures can be used to determine trials-to-criterion (e.g., rate) ❑ Typically calculated post facto ❑ Used to compare effectiveness Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Definitional Measures ❑ Topography The physical form or shape of a behavior ❑ Measurable dimension ❑ Malleable by consequences ❑ Not a fundamental quality of behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Definitional Measures ❑ Magnitude The force or intensity with which a response is emitted ❑ Important parameter for some response classes E.g., voice volume ❑ Not a fundamental quality of behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved  Procedures for Measuring Behavior ❑ Typically involve one or a combination of these three: 1. Event recording 2. Timing 3. Time sampling methods Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Event Recording ❑ Procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a behavior is observed ❑ Devices include: Wrist counters, digital counters, masking tape, paper clips, etc. Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Considerations for Event Recording ❑ Easy to do ❑ Behavior must have discrete beginning and ending ❑ Rate must not be too high ❑ Inappropriate for behaviors with long duration Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Timing ❑ Procedures to measure duration, response latency, and interresponse time ❑ Duration: computer systems, stopwatch, wall clocks, tape recorder ❑ Response latency and interresponse time Precise recording of duration between events of interest Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Time Sampling ❑ Variety of methods for observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time ❑ Observation is divided into intervals, presence or absence of behavior recorded for each interval Cooper, Heron, and Heward Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved  Time Sampling: Whole- Interval Recording ❑ Used to measure continuous behavior ❑ Brief intervals (5-15 seconds) ❑ At end of interval, record if behavior occurred throughout ❑ Risk of underestimation ❑ Reported as percentage of intervals when behavior occurred Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Time Sampling: Partial- Interval Recording ❑ At end of interval record if behavior occurred at any time during interval ❑ Multiple occurrences scored as one Does not capture duration ❑ Allows recording of multiple behaviors ❑ Reported as percentage of intervals when behavior occurred Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Time Sampling: Momentary Time Sampling ❑ Record whether the behavior is occurring at the end of the interval ❑ Does not require undivided attention ❑ Misses much behavior Best for continuous behavior ❑ Reported as percentage of intervals when behavior occurred Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Time Sampling: Planned Activity Check ❑ Variation of momentary time sampling Measures behavior of individuals within a group ❑ At end of interval, measure number of students engaged in target activity Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Guidelines for Time Sampling ❑ Use a timing device to signal beginning and end of observation Increase accuracy Not distracted by watching a stopwatch ❑ Record a response for every interval (e.g., yes or no) Prevents losing your place with blank intervals Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Time Sampling Artifactual Variability ❑ Artifact is something that appears to exist because of the way it is examined or measured ❑ Time sampling provides estimate of actual occurrences ❑ Different procedures produce different results ❑ Differences produce variability in data Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Measuring Behavior by Permanent Product ❑ Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring its effects on the environment ❑ Ex post facto ❑ All previous procedures can be applied to permanent product measurement ❑ Products can be a natural or contrived Cooper, Heron, and Heward Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved  Advantages of Permanent Product Recording ❑ Practitioner free to do other tasks ❑ Possible measurement of otherwise inaccessible behavior ❑ More accurate, complete, continuous ❑ Easier data collection (IOA, treatment integrity) ❑ Measurement of complex behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved  Determining Appropriate Use ❑ Is real-time measurement needed? Moment to moment decisions required ❑ Can behavior be measured by permanent product? Each occurrence must produce same product Product can only be produced by target behavior Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Determining Appropriate Use ❑ Will a contrived product affect the behavior? Reactivity effects ❑ Cost to obtain and measure the permanent product? Availability, cost and effort of generating the product Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved  Computer-Assisted Measurement ❑ Data collection and analysis software combined Multiple systems available Sophisticated and easy to use Laptops, hand-held computers, PDAs ❑ Simultaneous recording of multiple behaviors across multiple dimensions Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved