Venomous Animals - ABCS 347 Lecture Notes PDF

ABCS 347 VENOMOUS AND POISONOUS ANIMALS VERTEBRATES Mr. Y. Musah  Vertebrates 1 ~ 40,000 species of vertebrate of which about 2000 species are venomous FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES BIRDS MAMMALS  LECTURE 1...

ABCS 347 VENOMOUS AND POISONOUS ANIMALS VERTEBRATES Mr. Y. Musah  Vertebrates 1 ~ 40,000 species of vertebrate of which about 2000 species are venomous FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES BIRDS MAMMALS  LECTURE 1 2 Objectives  Distinguish between venomous and poisonous vertebrates  Give examples of venomous vertebrates, their families and locations in the world  Briefly describe the structure of the venom apparatus and or the method of envenomation  Ecological role of toxins 3 TOXIN – an antigenic poison/venom of plant/animal origin, esp. one produced by or derived from microorganisms and causing disease when present in low concentration in the body Interactions with predator  Defense at close contact  “Remote” defense Interactions with prey Interactions with competitors Protection against fungi and bacteria  POISONOUS VS. VENOMOUS 4 Poisons are substances that cause harm to organisms when sufficient quantities are absorbed, inhaled or ingested. Poisonous vertebrate – produces toxins that are harmful when the animal or plant is touched or eaten. Venom is a secretion that an animal produces in a gland for the purpose of injecting it into another animal. Venomous vertebrate – actively injects venom by means of a delivery apparatus (stinger, teeth (fangs), barb, spine, etc).  VENOMOUS FISH 5 FISHES – > 30,000 species worldwide of which ~ 1200 are venomous Over 90% of fishes are in the marine environment Cyclostamata (~ 100 species), Chrondrichthyes (~1000 species) and Osteichthyes (~ 26,000 species) Teleostei (true bony fishes) – consist of the bulk of the venomous species mainly in three groups:  Perciformes (weeverfish)  Siluriformes (catfish)  Scorpaeniformes (stonefish)  VENOMOUS FISH 6 Family Scorpaenidae  The family Scorpaenidae represents a large array of fish characterised by the ability to envenom with various types of specialized spines.  Unfortunately, this family of fish has a confusing variety of common names, which tends to hinder accurate field identification, classification, and understanding of envenomation.  Examples include; stonefish, lionfish, scorpionfish, turkeyfish, stargazer and toadfish  VENOMOUS FISH 7 It is helpful to consider the Scorpaenidae family as 3 distinct groups, based upon their venom organ structure and toxicity. These 3 groups and their representative genera include the following:  Pterois - Long, slender spines with small venom glands and a less potent sting (eg, lionfish, zebrafish, butterfly cod)  Scorpaena - Shorter and thicker spines with larger venom glands and a more potent sting (eg, scorpionfish, bullrout, sculpin)  Synanceia - Stout, powerful spines with highly developed venom glands and a potentially fatal sting (eg, stonefish) 8  STONEFISH 9 Classification and habitat STONEFISH Family Synanceiidae Stonefish (genus Synanceia) are the most venomous known fish in the world carnivores ray-finned fish primarily marine with few in rivers inhabit shallow tropical marine waters of the Indo- pacific oceans, coast of Florida and in the Caribbean World Ocean Map 10  STONEFISH 11 Behaviour and interaction with humans camouflage rocks and coral in their habitat Making them dangerous as humans can easily step on them Can stay about 24hrs out of water Estuarine Stonefish Stonefish (Synanceia horrida) Reef Stonefish (Synanceia  STONEFISH 12 Nature of venom apparatus The stonefish stores its deadly toxin in its : 13 dorsal spines, 3 anal spines and 2 pelvic spines Wounds produced by these fish are small, sometimes only 1.9 cm deep, but are sometimes fatal because the venom is extremely potent. Severity of the symptoms is related to the depth of penetration of the spines and the number of spines involved.  STONEFISH 13 Nature of venom Symptoms of envenomation So painful victims demand amputation of affected limb The mode of action of the venom is poorly understood but it’s known to have: cardiovascular (hypotension and bradycardia) neuromuscular toxicity (interferes with the synthesis and release of neurotransmitters from its storage site) haemolytic and oedemic-inducing activity  STONEFISH 14  Intense throbbing pain peaks in 1 to 2 hours and lasts 12 hours. Pain may be so severe as to cause hallucinations.  Redness, bruising, swelling, numbness, tingling, blisters.  Severe reactions include nausea, vomiting, abnormal heart rhythms, weakness, headache, diarrhoea, and paralysis.  Death may occur. VIDEO OF STONEFISH VENOM 1 15  LIONFISH 16 Highly desired in aquaria Mostly in the Indo-Pacific oceans but now invasive in Atlantic coast of USA Long and separated spines (15 – 18 spines)  Dorsal fins (12 – 13 spines)  Pelvic fins (a pair of venomous spines on leading edge)  Anal fin (2 – 3 spines on leading edge) Sting very painful but not deadly to humans Extreme pain, swelling, sometimes cardiovascular collapse Red Lionfish (Pterois 17 volitans) Clearfin Lionfish (Pterois  CATFISH 18 Live in Inland or Coastal waters worldwide except Antarctica Except the electric catfish, all have three barbed spines which stick out at right angles from the dorsal and pectoral fins (serrated on the backside as well). The venom is produced by glandular cells in the epidermal tissue covering the spines. In members of the family Plotosidae, and of the genus Heteropneustes, venom is so strong it may hospitalise humans, those of Plotosus lineatus, may result in death (Family Plotosidae).  Discarded spines and 19 refrigerated specimen should be handled with care as venom remains active even after death Striped eel catfish (Plotosus lineatus  WEEVERFISH 20 Family Trachinidae: 9 species Found in tropical waters Southern North sea to Mediterranean Dorsal fins and opercula have venomous spines (neurotoxin) Venom has one of the most potent pain producing substance known to humans Extremely painful sting, throbbing pain and swelling in the affected area, sometimes numbness, nausea, joint aches, headaches, abdominal cramps More severe symptoms: abnormal heart rhythm, seizures, weakness  21 Greater weeverfish (Trachinus draco) Lesser weeverfish (Echiichthys vipera)  22 TOADFISH Family Batrachoididae Tropical water off the coast of South and Central America Benthic ambush predators Mainly marine with a few freshwater types (Worldwide) Toad-like appearance Ability to make calls by using swim bladder - to attract mates Sharp spines on dorsal fins Very painful stings  23 Orange/Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta)  STINGRAY 24 Family Dasyatidae About 150 species in about 20 genera bottom-dwelling cartilaginous fish that have a flattened body (no dorsal fin) one or more stout spines on the tail Live in shallow waters The blue spotted (Indo-pacific ocean) and the Southern stingray (southeastern USA) are some of the most venomous Venom mainly cardiotoxin  25 Blue-spotted stingray Short-tail stingray (Neotrygon kuhlii) (Dasyatis brevicaudata)  FAMILY VENOMOUS LOCATION 26 FISH Dasyatidae Stingray Indo-Pacific, Southeastern USA Plotosidae Catfish Coastal waters everywhere (except Antartica) Synanceida Stonefish Indo-Pacific, Coast of e Florida and Caribean Scorpaenid Lionfish Indo-Pacific, Invasive ae Atlantic Ocean Trachinidae Weeverfish North Sea – Meditarreanean Batrachoidi Toad fish dae Coast of South and Central  Summary of symptoms of envenomation by venomous fishes 27 Venomous fishes (excluding Stonefish, zebrafish and scorpionfish) – less venomous fishes Local symptoms  Severe pain, numbness, hypersensitivity around wound  Wound site may become cyanotic General symptoms  Nausea, vomiting, sweating, mild fever, muscular paralysis, respiratory distress and collapse  Summary of symptoms of envenomation by venomous fishes 28 Venomous fishes – stonefish, zebrafish, scorpionfish Local symptoms  Similar to less venomous fishes except more severe and may persist for more days General symptoms  Respiratory failure  Cardiovascular collapse  MANAGEMENT OF ENVENOMATION 29 Identifying a fish following a sting is not always possible, however symptoms and effects of venom don’t vary greatly Venomous fishes rarely are aggressive and contact with humans are usually accidentally when humans step on them inadvertently and or handle them Dead fish spine remains toxic Venom generally heat liable and may be decomposed by hot water  MANAGEMENT OF ENVENOMATION 30 General precautions after envenomation from a venomous fish  Remove the exposed person from the water to prevent drowning.  Immerse the wound for 30 to 90 minutes in water as hot as the victim can tolerate (up to 140 F or 60 C) because the toxins are heat-sensitive. Repeat as necessary to control pain (except stingray envenomation)  Use tweezers to remove any spines in the wound (careful not squeeze venom glands that may have broken off in the wound with the spine. It is rare for a spine to break off in the wound. Use caution, wear gloves to avoid self-inoculation during spine removal.  MANAGEMENT OF ENVENOMATION 31 General precautions after envenomation from a venomous fish  Scrub the wound with soap and water. Then flush the affected area with fresh water.  There is antivenom available for stonefish envenomation.  Do not apply tape to close the wound as this may increase the risk of infection.  Patients may need a tetanus booster; this is usually recommended for all patients with this type of envenoming.  LECTURE 2 1 VENOMOUS AMPHIBIANS Objectives  Give examples of venomous amphibians, their families and locations in the world (Greening’s frog, Bruno’s casque headed frog, Crocodile newt)  Briefly describe the structure of the venom apparatus and or the method of envenomation by above named amphibians  VENOMOUS AMPHIBIANS 12 Two newly recognised species of frogs are venomous: Family Hylidae, endemic to Brazil. Using head butting they can inject venom into intruders from spines in their skulls. These bony spines grow out of the frogs’ skulls, and are rooted in glands that secrete the toxic mucous. Greening’s frog (Corythomantis greeningi) Bruno’s casque-headed frog (Aparasphenodon  A. brunoi = 1 g of venom kill > 13 300,000 mice = 80 humans. 25 times more venomous than Brazilian pitvipers.  When the frogs’ secretions were analysed, the researchers found hyaluronidase, a protein usually found in venomous snakes. The protein is non-toxic, but aids in the spread of toxins. Greening’s frog Bruno’s casque-headed frog  VENOMOUS AMPHIBIANS 14  Certain salamander species (genera Pleurodeles and Tylototriton) have tubercles running down the sides of their bodies.  As the salamanders are actively using these ''stinging ribs'' to inject their toxins, such species could be considered venomous as opposed to poisonous.  E.g the sharp-ribbed salamander/Spanish ribbed newt (Pleurodeles waltl), is one of Europe’s largest salamander species.  It is distributed throughout non-mountainous regions of Spain, Portugal and northern Morocco.  15 Iberian ribbed newt (Pleurodeles waltl) Crocodile Newt  VENOMOUS REPTILES Objectives Classify venomous reptiles Give examples of venomous reptiles Describe the venom apparatus or method of envenomation by some venomous reptiles State some Importance and dangers of venom Explain why some snakes are venomous but their bites are not considered dangerous to humans Give examples of the following; venomous snakes, non venomous snakes, venomous but not dangerous snakes in Ghana  Classification and Diversity Order: Squamata Suborders: Lacertilia Ophidia Family Atractaspidae Family Varanidae Family Colubridae Subfamily Boiginae Family Helodermatidae Family Elapidae Family Iguanidae Family Viperidae  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Among the reptiles, lizards and snakes have venomous members Both monitors and iguanas have now been confirmed to produce venom It is now thought that venom production had a single early origin for lizards and snake with a common venomous ancestor that lived about 200 million years ago. The evolution of venom would have, thus, coincided with the rapid spread of small mammals  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Helodermatidae  Carnivores species  Possess venom glands in their lower jaws which produces venom primarily for defence.  Do not inject venom, venom flows into wound caused by teeth in their lower jaws  Venom causes paralysis, difficulty in breathing and sometimes convulsion  Rarely causes death in humans  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum)  The Gila Monster is found in southern Arizona, New Mexico and Mexico, in the Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts. Gila  In its hot environment, it lives in burrows. Monster  Listed as endangered in USA and Mexico https://images2.minutemediacdn.com/image/upload/c_fill,g_auto,h_1248,w_2220/f_auto,q_ auto,w_1100/v1555296454/shape/mentalfloss/istock_22499194_small.jpg  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Mexican Beaded Lizard/Beaded Lizard (Heloderma horridum)  Occurs in central and western Mexico.  They live in thorn scrub land as well as in tropical and pine forests.  Similar but are bigger than Gila monsters (females being bigger than males with a broader head).  Considered endangered and are protected by law throughout their natural range. https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/mexican-beaded-lizard-4-19258436.jpg  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Varanidae  Monitors have elongated snouts, a long, smooth, retractile tongue, well-developed limbs and strong claws, a long tail and a dull grayish color.  Found in Australia, Africa (3 species) and Asia.  Carnivorous and most of the species are semi- aquatic. All monitors are now known to produce venom  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis) Inhabit Komodo Island and a few other tiny islands east of Java in Indonesia. World's largest living lizards; capable of killing large animals (pigs, goats, deer and water buffalo, other Komodo Dragons). Reported cases of killed humans too  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards A recent study shows they actually kill their victims by injecting them with venom. 6 venom glands on each side of lower jaw Venom leaks into wounds venom seem to have a relatively mild effect on humans.  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Symptoms of venom Rapid decreases blood pressure, rapid blood loss, and shock Some component of the venom that reduce blood pressure are as toxic as those found in Australia's Inland Taipan  VENOMOUS REPTILES - Lizards Iguanidae Iguanas are diurnal reptiles that occur mainly in America and, outside the western hemisphere, only in Madagascar, Fiji, and Tonga. They are known to live in a variety of habitats ranging from trees, to the water's edge, or arid areas Though vegetarians unlike most lizards, some species can deliver small amounts of venom with venom-secreting glands in their mouths E.g Iguanian lizard (Pogona barbata) – this species is unique in that, it maintains an ancestral venom system – venom glands on both upper and lower jaws  General symptoms of venomous lizard bites Symptoms at the site of a poisonous lizard bite may include: Moderate to severe bleeding. Throbbing or burning pain. Swelling that gradually gets worse over several hours. Teeth left in the wound. More general symptoms may include: Weakness, Dizziness, Nausea and vomiting, Profuse sweating, Trouble breathing Symptoms of a severe allergic reaction SNAKES  VENOMOUS REPTILES – Snake Dentition Non-venomous: Fangless, backwards pointed, same Venomous, Back-Fanged size Venomous, Fixed Front-Fanged Venomous, Hinged Front-Fanged  IMPORTANT SNAKES IN GHANA: Non-Venomous Royal Sand boa: Python: Gonglyophis Python muelleri regius Striped house snake: Lamprophis lineatus Rhombic egg eater: Dasypeltis scabra Green Tree Snake: Philothamnus irregularis  NON VENOMOUS BUT CAN BE DANGEROUS TO HUMANS These are not found in Ghana Reticulated python (Python reticulatus) Anaconda (Eunectes murinus) Burmese python (Python bivittatus) African Python Python sebae  IMPORTANT SNAKES IN GHANA: Venomous: Backfanged 2 other sand snakes in Ghana Olive sand Snake Psammophis phillipsi Elegant sand snake Boomslang Psammophis elegans Blanding’s tree snake Dispholidus typus Toxicodryas blandingii Twig or Bird Snake Telothornis kirtlandi Hissing sand Snake Herald snake Psammophis sibilans Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia  IMPORTANT SNAKES IN GHANA Venomous: Fixed Front-Fanged (Cobras and Mambas) Western green Mamba Dendroaspis viridis Black-necked spitting Cobra Naja nigricollis Katian/Mali spitting Cobra Forest cobra Egyptian Cobra Naja katiensis Naja melanoleuca  IMPORTANT SNAKES IN GHANA: Venomous: Hinged Front-Fanged Green tree viper Atheris chlorechis Gaboon Viper Bitis gabonica Rhinoceros Viper Bitis nasicornis Puff Adder Bitis arietans Carpet Viper Echis ocellatus Night Adder Causus maculatus IMPORTANT SNAKES IN GHANA: Venomous: burrowing front fanged snakes (stiletto snakes or burrowing asps)  Venomous snakes continues Objectives Describe the venom apparatus or method of envenomation by snakes State some Importance and dangers of venom Describe the types and how antivenom are produced especially by horse serum Snakebite https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/mai n-qimg-  VENOM - COMPOSITION AND TYPES Venom: Highly toxic secretions produced in special glands in some animals which are evolutionary adaptations for immobilising prey, pre-digestion and defense Animal venoms are mixtures of 20-25 different kinds of molecules dissolved in water Animal venoms contain enzymes, and are about 90 % protein. Examples are proteolytic enzymes, phospholipases, and hyaluronidases  VENOM - COMPOSITION AND TYPES Venoms are also classified by their action to disrupt body function: – Cardiotoxin: heart failure – Haemorrhagin: external/internal bleeding – Coagulation toxin: prevent blood clotting – Haemolysin: destroy red blood cells – Neurotoxin: paralysis of parts of the body (e.g. muscles, circulatory system) – Coagulation – blood changes from a liquid to a gel – Neuromuscular – weakness and paralysis  Tapping snake VENOM – ITS IMPORTANCE TO HUMANS venom Animal venoms have great potential medical use. Snake venom is very complex, with specific components extracted for use for treatment of some medical disorders: – Cardiovascular diseases (e.g. high blood pressure, stroke) - (beta-blockers) – Nerve diseases - poliomyelitis, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, Arthritis pain (analgesic- cobrotoxin) – Blood clots (anticoagulants) – Cancer/non-malignant tumours – Diabetes treatment (Gila monster toxin) – Production of antivenom  SNAKES AND HUMANS: Snakebite Precautions & Preventions Don’t walk barefoot or wear open footwear (e.g. sandals) in bushy areas, esp. at night; wear boots, long trousers, etc. Don’t insert unprotected hands into places you cannot see (e.g., burrows, under logs/rocks, piles of stones, etc.) Don’t pick or play with snakes (even if they appear dead), or touch the fangs of a dead snake Leave a snake alone if it does not pose any danger to human life; do not kill it! Do not panic or make threatening gestures when you encounter a snake; remain calm and wait for the snake to retreat.  SNAKES AND HUMANS: Snakebite First Aid Most physicians are in disagreement with regard to the nature, duration and even necessity for first-aid after snakebites. Previously recommended first-aid measures such as using tourniquets, incision, oral suction and electric-shock are now strongly discouraged. It is advised that the wound site should be minimally handled with no time wasting First, move the victim beyond striking distance of the snake, if still present. Assure the victim that there is no danger, and calm him down  VENOMOUS MAMMALS Shrews (Blarina sp.) Glands in its mouth contain a neurotoxin which immobilizes larger animals such as snakes and birds (predator defence). Northern Short-tailed Shrew (Blarina brevicauda)- A large shrew found in central and eastern North America. Solenodons (Solenodon paradoxus) Look like large shrews. Venom (modified saliva) is delivered via grooves in their second lower incisors.  VENOMOUS MAMMALS Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) Semi-aquatic mammal endemic to eastern Australia; one of the only mammals that lay eggs (also spiny anteaters). Males have a venomous spur on the hind limbs to deliver venom capable of causing severe pain to humans or predators. Northern Short- Solenod Duck-billed Platy tailed Shrew on  ASSIGNMENTS 1. Give a taxonomic account of venomous reptiles in Ghana (submission: 27th May 2021 before 1pm) 2. A student picked up a lizard with her bare hand for a minute, and let go of the lizard. While handling the lizard she noticed the lizard head butting her hand. She suffered swelling of that arm up to the shoulder with pain. Following shortly by numbness in that arm and nausea. Was the lizard a venomous or a poisonous one? Justify your answer (submission: 03rd June 2021 before 1 pm)  References for further reading https://sites.google.com/site/venomousdange rous/lizards/venomous-lizards-of-the http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Amazonia/F acts/fact-poisondartfrog.cfm - poison arrow frogs toxin from ants http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0809- frogs.html - poison arrow frog toxin  ABCS 307 VENOMOUS AND POISONOUS ANIMALS POISONOUS VERTEBRATES Mr. Y. Musah  POISONOUS FISH Puffer fish - Family Tetraodontidae About 120 species in 19 genera Mostly marine and estuarine fish mainly in the tropics About 29 species in freshwater Most poisonous fish and Second poisonous vertebrate on earth Lizard fish and Tiger sharks feed on puffer fish Tiger sharks are immune to the toxin (http://www.staradvertiser.com/columnists/20100823_Rese archers_seek_samples_of_dying_deadly_pufferfish.html?id= 101284409) Blue boxfish (Ostracions meleagris) Green Pufferfish (Tetraodon fluviatilis)  POISONOUS FISH Nature of poison Tetrodotoxin (TTX) Liver, ovaries, intestines and skin Inhibits neural transmission leading to weakness, paralysis and death. Poison varies in different species and in same species in different location Takifugu oblongus is a puffer that is not poisonous  POISONOUS FISH Nature of poison By controlling the diet, non poisonous ones have been grown/bred by farmers Eaten in some parts of Asia Only highly trained and certified Chefs are allowed to prepare it  POISONOUS FISH Symptoms of Pufferfish poisoning  deadening of the tongue and lips,  dizziness  vomiting  rapid heart rate  difficulty breathing  muscle paralysis. Most deaths from fugu happen when untrained people catch and prepare the fish.  POISONOUS FISH Treatment There is no known antidote Supportive care Intestinal decontamination with gastric lavage and activated charcoal Anticholinesterase e.g edrophonium maybe effective  POISONOUS FISH Boxfish Family Ostraciidae Closely related to pufferfish but not as poisonous as pufferfish Atlantic and Indo-pacific oceans Their hexagonal plate-like scales are fused together into a solid, triangular, box-like carapace, from which the fins, tail, eyes and mouth protrude The Hawaiian boxfish in particular excretes a toxin called ostracitoxin/pahutoxin that destroys red blood cells (hemolytic)  Poisonous fishes Box fish Occasionally they are killed by their own secretion in a closed system Toxin secreted from their skin The members of the genus Ostracion are the most dangerous species to keep with other fish while the cowfishes of the genus Acanthostracion and Lactoria and the Atlantic trunkfishes of the genus Lactophrys rarely, if ever, cause problems. Yellow boxfish (Ostracion cubicus) Blue boxfish (Ostracions meleagris) Box fish Can boxfish be eaten? Box fish is awesome. The meat looks exactly like chicken, and similar texture. We eat them all the time in the bahamas. You need a good shears or a sawsall to clean them easy. Disconnect the tail from the outer shell and pull. The tail pulls free with the meat attached. it comes out like four big loins. Unlike any other seafood I have had http://true-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/03/puffer- fish.html Terrestrial Vertebrates: AMPHIBIANS  Dendrobatidae (Poison Dart/Arrow Frogs) Brief Biology and behaviours Mostly in Central and South America Brightly-coloured Produce toxic skin alkaloids from the insects they feed on. Golden Poison Arrow frog (Phyllobates terribilis) Dendrobatidae (Poison Dart/Arrow Frogs) Called poison dart frogs or poison arrow frogs because South American Indians (Noanama, Choco, Cuna and Embera tribes of Columbia) use the potent toxin secreted from granular skin glands on the back of some frogs to poison darts used for hunting. The poisoned darts can remain lethal for up to three years and can still kill medium-sized game. Dendrobatidae (Poison Dart/Arrow Frogs) Some species exhibit complex parental care. In Oophaga pumilio, females guard eggs until they hatch. Upon hatching, the mother transports each tadpole on her back to a suitable water body such as a bromeliad axil.  Nature and effect of toxin The toxin in these frogs was found in the mid 1960s to be batrachotoxin Of the many poisonous frogs, only those from the genus Phyllobates secrete batrachotoxin. High levels of this toxin are found in the western Columbian Phyllobates terribilis, Phyllobates bicolor, and Phyllobates aurotaenia  Nature and effect of toxin Batrachotoxin is a steroidal alkaloid found in the granular skin glands of frogs in the genus Phyllobates. The skin of Phyllobates terribilis contains about 1mg of batrachotoxin: more than any other species in that genus. This toxin is not produced by the frogs themselves, but is instead taken up through diet.  Nature and effect of toxin Symptoms of poisoning  Convulsions,  muscle and respiratory paralysis,  strong muscle contractions,  salivation and  death  Nature and effect of toxin Batrachotoxin acts by disrupting sodium channels from closing in nerves thereby preventing nerve impulse from being sent on. Phyllobates are not susceptible to the alkaloids because the sodium channels in their nerves and muscles are modified. ORDER CAUDATA (URODELA) – TAILED AMPHIBIANS 1. Family Salamandridae (Salamanders and newts) Six genera No scales, no claws, no external ear opening Possess lungs, lacking gills as adults North America, Europe, North Africa and Asia E.g. Salamandra salamandra (Fire salamander)  Poisonous Salamanders It is believed that salamanders obtain their toxicity by ingesting bacteria. Toxins are produced by these symbiotic bacteria, such Pseudomonas and Vibrio that reside within these animals. They are also protected by parotoid (Salamandra salamandra gallaica) or granular glands (Triturus marmoratus) that produce toxic secretions, a protective covering that results in the newt becoming unpalatable or actually lethal to most predators.  Poisonous Salamanders Over 200 "toxins" have been discovered in amphibians. Tetrodotoxin, also known as TTX, is the most poisonous non-protein substance known to scientists and similar to that found in pufferfish. Basically, the toxin blocks the signals from the brain that tell the heart to beat and lungs to breath. The "tarichatoxin" or "tetrodotoxin" are found in North American newts and some Asian and European relatives.  Poisonous Salamanders "Scientists have tested 30 potential predators of newts, from belted kingfishers to great blue herons to bullfrogs and fish, finding in every case that the newt killed them." The toxins range in severity of effect.  Most toxic are the Taricha spp. to mildest the European Triturus spp.  The rough-skin newt (Taricha granulosa) is one of the most toxic animals known to science. Rough-skinned newt (Taricha graulosa  Poisonous Salamanders Furthermore, the toxicity of any individual newt is affected by a variety of factors:  Age – juveniles are far more lethal than the adults. Also, Tetrodotoxin isolated from the eggs of Taricha is far more toxic than any other known substance from the skin of salamanders.  Location – same species in different localities do have different levels of toxicity  Gender - For example, the skin of the male Taricha torosa was more than three times as toxic as the skin of the females.  Poisonous Salamanders In handling newts, one must remember that, newt's toxin is passed to a predator (or careless human handler) only through the digestive tract, a break in the skin, or via any mucous membrane such as the eyes. So, it is safe to handle newts as long as one washes hands thoroughly afterwards, and doesn't touch their eyes or mouth until after a thorough cleaning.  Management of Salamander poisoning No antidote In case of Newt Ingestion Poisoning:  Forced vomiting  Humans should be administered 50 to 100 g of activated charcoal to help absorb the toxin.  Supportive therapy should also be provided until the neurotoxin has dissipated.  Intravenous infusion in case of hypotension  First aid will have to be administered rather quickly  Classification and Diversity ORDER APODA/GYMNOPHIONA (Caecilians) Family Caeciliidae 16 genera Occur in Mexico to South America, Asia and Africa except Madagascar. West African Caecilian (Geotrypetes  GYMNOPHIONA/APODA (CAECILIANS) Many species of caecilians have a natural defense to predators. Their skin will secrete a natural toxin. The toxin in most species serves to make them taste very bad to predators. A few species of caecilians have toxins that are actually poisonous and can kill a predator that eats them.  POISONOUS BIRDS There are no species of venomous birds. However 8 bird species (out of globally 10,000) have poisonous skin and feathers and therefore dangerous to touch (causes numbness and tingling): 6 Pitohuis, 1 Ifrita, 1 Shrike-thrush. All species are endemic to Papua New Guinea and Little Shrike-Thrush very little known. The Hooded Pitohui Pitohui dichrous is the most poisonous The poison is used as a deterrent of parasites and predators. These birds cannot themselves produce the toxin. Hooded Pitohui Homobatrachotoxin, but concentrate this from their diet containing poisonous beetles. Homobatrachotoxin is also found in poison dart frogs in South America and is hence an example of parallel Blue-capped Ifrita evolution or ‘Evolutionary Convergence’.  Another angle on poison arrow frog Further reading http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150422- the-worlds-most-poisonous-animal  UU ABCS 347 NN VENOMOUS II VV EE R R & S IS TI YT OF Y POISONOUS ANIMALS OF G G H A H NA Dr. Maxwell BILLAH AN Senior Lecturer A [email protected] [DABCS] 0545 699 699  OUTLINE UU Invertebrates and Terrestrial Arthropods NN II (Insects, Arachnids and Myriapods) VV EE Biology and Ecology R R S Nature of Venom and Structure of Venom IS TI Apparatus YT Y Interaction with Humans OF G OF Prevention and Management of Bites and G H H Stings A NA Importance to Humans and the AN A Ecosystem [DABCS]  PHYLUM ARTHROPODA UU NN 3 Main Subphyla II VV EE Chelicerata – horseshoe, scorpions, R R spiders, mites S IS TI YT Crustacea – copepods, shrimps, lobsters, OF Y barnacles, crabs OF G Remipede – Xibalbanus (Speleonectes) G tulumensis H A H NA AN Uniramia – millipedes, centipedes, A insects [DABCS]  Subphylum Chelicerata UU NN Class Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, mites) II VV Arachnida – Largest & most common EE R Adaptations to Terrestrial life R S IS Waxy epicuticle with high lipid content. TI YT Cuticle is hydrofuge Y OF OF Book gills modified into book lungs for G G atmospheric breathing H A H Excretion – coxal glands (paired thin- NA AN walled spherical sacs) and malpighian A tubules. [DABCS]  Class Arachnida UU NN Guanine is principal nitrogenous waste. II Uric acid and xanthine. VV EE R Reproduction – indirect sperm transfer R S through spermatophores. IS TI YT Dioecious with paired genital openings Y on ventral surface of 2nd abdominal OF OF segment. G H G H Direct development A NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Class: Arachnida II VV Order: Scorpiones EE R Found in tropical to warm temperate climates R S IS Secretive and nocturnal – found under logs TI and stones in daytime YT Y Body consists of a carapace-covered OF OF cephalothorax and long abdomen ending G H G in a stinging apparatus. H A NA Chelicerae small and pedipalps large AN A and chelate [DABCS]  UU Adaptation to Terrestrial life NN II 1. Physiology allows them to survive temperatures VV EE up to 45oC R S R 2. Impervious exoskeleton IS 3. Able to tolerate high loss of water, up to 40% TI YT 4. Able to raise body well above ground - permits Y OF circulation of air beneath animal OF G 5. Development of pectines – pair of sensory G H appendages posterior to genital plates. A H NA 6. Sensitive to vibrations AN A [DABCS]  Class: Arachnida UU Terrestrial, Cephalothorax, NN II Thorax separated from abdomen by narrow VV EE waist-like constriction R S R No antennae, Simple eyes, No larval forms IS TI No true mouthparts, YT 4 pairs of walking legs Y OF OF 1 pair for capturing prey & 1 pair of sensory palp G G Gas exchange by lung books/gill books or H A H trachea NA eg. Scorpio (scorpion) AN A Epeira (web-spinning spider) [DABCS] Mites & ticks  UU NN Subphylum: CHELICERATA II VV Class: ARACHNIDA EE R Order: SCORPIONES R S IS Scorpions are predatory arthropods, TI YT 8 walking legs, pair of grasping claws Y OF OF Narrow, segmented tail carried in a G G characteristic forward curve over the H A H back, ending with a venomous stinger. NA AN A [DABCS]  Scorpion UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Order: Araneae UU NN The largest order of arachnids II VV Air-breathing EE R R Have 2 tagmata - cephalothorax and abdomen, and S joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel. IS TI YT Have eight legs, No antennae OF Y Chelicerae with fangs that inject venom OF G G Found worldwide on every continent H A H except for Antarctica NA AN No extensor muscles in limbs - extend A them by hydraulic pressure. [DABCS]  UU NN Abdomen bears appendages modified II into spinnerets that produce silk from their VV EE glands R S R Males identify themselves by a variety of IS TI complex courtship rituals to avoid being YT Y eaten by the females OF OF Females weave egg-cases from silk, G H G which may contain hundreds of eggs. H A Spider silk provides a combination of NA AN lightness, strength, and elasticity that is A superior to that of synthetic materials [DABCS]  UU NN Many have book lungs which contain II VV the respiratory pigment EE R haemocyanin to make oxygen transport more R efficient S IS TI Spiders are ectotherms, so YT Y environmental temperatures affect their activity OF OF Apical sections of chelicerae G G H H modified into fangs, used for injecting A NA venom into prey AN A Digestion is external [DABCS]  Spider – Body Plan UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Subphylum Crustacea UU NN Crustacea – II VV – Decapods (10-Legged arthropods) EE R copepods, crabs, crayfish, shrimps, R S lobsters, prawns barnacles, IS TI YT Y – Krill (small ‘transparent’ shrimps) OF OF G G – Remipedes (blind crustaceans) H H Identified as the world’s first & only venomous A NA crustacean AN Xibalbanus (Speleonectes) tulumensis A [DABCS]  Xibalbanus (Speleonectes) tulumensis UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Xibalbanus (Speleonectes) tulumensis UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN They are group of blind, aquatic, and II VV cave-dwelling crustaceans EE R R First described in 1981 S IS TI Occur only in underwater caves in YT Y Central America, the Caribbean, the OF OF Canary Islands, & western Australia. Bear resemblance to terrestrial G G H A H NA centipedes AN A They are hermaphroditic [DABCS]  UU NN Have long, segmented bodies, 25-30 II VV millimetres long EE R R Most segments equipped with legs S IS Numerous legs used as oars for TI YT Y swimming OF OF It is thought that insects evolved from G H G crustaceans H That they are more closely related A NA AN A to insects than any other [DABCS] crustaceans  venom delivery UU NN They have apparatus II VV EE R S R Front claws resemble hypodermic IS TI needles YT Y Venom contains paralyzing OF OF neurotoxins and other chemicals G H G H Neurotoxin very similar to A NA neurotoxins in spider venom AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II “This venom is clearly a VV EE R great adaptation for R S IS TI these blind cave- YT OF Y dwellers that live in OF G H G nutrient-poor H A NA AN underwater caves” A [DABCS]  Class: Chilopoda (Centipedes) UU NN Mainly terrestrial, Only head is defined II VV 1 pair of antennae, 1 pair of mouthparts EE R (jaws), Mainly carnivorous R S IS Numerous identical legs TI YT No larval forms Y OF OF Eyes may be simple, compound or G G absent H A H Gaseous exchange by tracheae NA AN – Eg. Lithobius (centipede) A [DABCS]  UU NN Class: CHILOPODA (Centipedes). II VV Elongate metameric animals EE R One pair of legs per body segment R S IS Pair of venom claws or forcipules TI YT Formed from modified first Y OF appendage, OF G G Found in soil and leaf litter, under stones H A H and dead wood, and inside logs. NA AN A [DABCS]  Centipede UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Class: Diplopoda (Millipedes) UU NN Terrestrial, clearly defined head, II VV 1 pair of antennae, 1 pair of mouthparts EE R (jaws), R S IS Mainly herbivorous TI YT Eyes may be simple, compound, or absent Y OF OF Numerous identical legs, G G No larval forms, H H A NA Gaseous exchange by tracheae AN – Eg. Lulus (millipede) A [DABCS]  MYRIAPODA UU NN Class: DIPLOPODA (Millipedes). II VV Two pairs of legs per segment EE R S R First segment behind head has no IS appendages TI YT Elongated cylindrical bodies (some are Y OF OF flattened dorso-ventrally). G G Common species have 36-400 legs. H A H Feed on decaying leaves and other dead NA AN plant matter. A [DABCS]  UU The Giant African Millipede, NN II VV Archispirostreptus gigas EE R R Is the largest species of millipede. S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Due to their lack of speed and II VV inability to bite or sting, EE R R S IS Millipedes defend themselves by; TI YT Curling into tight coils Y OF OF – protecting their delicate legs with G G H A H NA the armoured exoskeleton. AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II Many species also emit VV EE foul-smelling liquid secretions R R through microscopic holes S IS TI YT Y called ozopores OF G OF –openings of "odoriferous" or "repugnatorial glands", along G H A H NA the sides of their bodies as a secondary AN A defense. [DABCS]  UU NN Secretions may include; II VV EE R alkaloids, R benzoquinones, S IS TI YT phenols, Y OF OF terpenoids, and/or G G H A H NA hydrogen cyanide AN A [DABCS]  Some of these substances UU NN II VV EE are caustic and; R R S IS TI 1. can burn exoskeleton of YT Y ants and other insect OF G OF G predators, H H A NA 2. and skin & eyes of larger AN A predators. [DABCS]  UU NN Mostly harmless to humans – they usually cause only minor skin II VV EE R R discoloration S IS TI Secretions of some tropical YT OF Y species may cause pain, OF G G itching, local erythema, H A H oedema, blisters, eczema, and NA AN A occasionally cracked skin [DABCS]  UU NN II Eye exposures cause general VV EE eye irritation and potentially R S R IS more severe effects such as TI YT conjunctivitis and keratitis Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Other Uses UU NN Primates such as Capuchin II VV monkeys and Lemurs have been EE R R observed intentionally irritating S IS millipedes in order to rub the TI YT Y chemicals on themselves to repel OF OF mosquitoes G H A G H Some also show antifungal NA AN activity A [DABCS]  Management UU First aid consists of flushing area NN II thoroughly with water VV EE R Further treatment is aimed at R S IS relieving the local effects. TI YT An aggregation of millipedes Y OF OF Some millipedes are considered G H G H household pests, including A NA Xenobolus carnifex which AN A infests thatched roofs in India. [DABCS]  UU Other species exhibit periodical swarming NN II behaviour, which can result in home VV EE invasions, crop damage, train delays, or R S R even train crashes and derailments. IS TI Some of the larger millipedes are YT Y popular as pets, including species of; OF OF Archispirostreptus, G G H Aphistogoniulus, H A NA AN Narceus, and A [DABCS Orthoporus. ]  Folklore & Traditional Medicine UU NN Many cultures ascribe millipede activity II VV with coming rains. EE R The Yoruba - millipedes are used in R S IS pregnancy and business rituals, TI YT Crushed millipedes are used to treat fever, OF Y whitlow, and convulsion in children OF G In Zambia, smashed millipede pulp is G H H used to treat wounds, A NA AN In Cameroon, the Bafia people use A millipede juice to treat earaches. [DABCS]  UU NN II In Malaysia, the natives use VV EE millipede secretions in poison-tipped R S R arrows IS TI YT Y In Burkina Faso, the Bobo people OF OF are reported to use millipedes as G H G food by humans - who consume H A NA boiled, dried millipedes in tomato AN A sauce. [DABCS]  Spider Bites UU NN Dangerous spiders occur mainly in II VV the Americas, southern Africa, the EE R R Mediterranean region and Australia. S IS The most notorious genera are TI YT Y Latrodectus (black/brown widow OF OF spiders), G G Phoneutria (Latin American armed or H A H banana spiders), NA AN Atrax (Sydney funnel web spider) and A [DABCS] Loxosceles (brown recluse spiders).  Spider Bites UU Venoms of Latrodectus, Phoneutria and NN II Atrax affect the nerves, muscles, and VV EE heart, R S R – They produce cramping pains, muscle IS spasms, weakness, sweating, salivation, TI YT gooseflesh, fever, nausea, vomiting, Y alterations in pulse rate & blood pressure, and OF OF convulsions G H G Loxosceles bites cause A H NA – Severe local necrosis, a generalised red rash, AN fever, dark urine (haemoglobinuria), blood A clotting disturbances and kidney failure. [DABCS]  UU NN Deaths are unusual except among children II VV EE Bites usually occur when the victim R S R brushes against a spider that has IS TI crept into clothes or bedding YT OF Y Anti-venoms are manufactured in OF G G countries such as South Africa, H A H Australia & Brazil, where spider NA AN bites are important medical problems. A [DABCS]  Scorpion Stings UU Fatal cases are usually in children NN II VV Most stings not life threatening but EE cause excruciating local pain with little R S R swelling IS TI Symptoms reflect initial release of YT Y acetylcholine neurotransmitter OF (causing vomiting, abdominal pain, OF G G bradycardia, sweating, salivation etc) H A H Followed by release of catecholamines NA (causing hypertension, tachycardia, pulmonary AN A oedema, ECG abnormalities). [DABCS]  UU NN Severe local pain is treated by II VV injecting local anaesthetic e.g. EE R lignocaine (lidocaine) R S IS TI but powerful products such as YT Y tramadol injections may be required OF G OF Severe systemic symptoms are G H A H treated with appropriate NA pharmacological agents (such as AN A vasodilator drugs) and anti-venom. [DABCS]  Prevention is Better Than Cure UU Always; NN II VV suspect there may be a scorpion EE R under cases, stones, logs etc. R shake your boots & shoes out S IS TI YT before putting them on Y OF OF look where you put your bare feet G H G H Use UV lamp to search your A NA campsite as exoskeleton of scorpions AN fluoresces/glow in UV light in the night A [DABCS]  Class Insecta UU NN Various tropical arthropods II VV EE have larvae which invade R S R human tissue or are merely IS TI YT blood sucking. Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Cantharidin is a poisonous caustic II VV chemical that causes blistering of the EE R skin R S IS Used medically to remove warts TI YT Y Collected for this purpose from OF OF species of the genera Mylabris & G H G Lytta especially Lytta vesicatoria - the A H NA AN A "Spanish fly" [DABCS]  Blister Beetles - General Outline & Shape UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Mylabris quadripunctata UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN The Four-Spotted Blister Beetle Mylabris quadripunctata A [DABCS]  Rove Beetles UU NN (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) II VV Hardened forewings that cover the EE R R flight wings S IS TI Much more brightly coloured than YT Y other rove beetles, with metallic OF OF blue- or green-coloured elytra G G H A H Many with bright orange or red on NA AN the pronotum and the basal A [DABCS ] segments of the abdomen.  UU NN The bright colours may be an II VV example of aposematism - a warning EE signal to potential predators R R S IS TI Although most adult rove beetles YT Y avoid daylight, OF Paederus species are active OF G G H A H during the day and attracted to NA AN A bright lights after nightfall. [DABCS]  Paederus sp. UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Beetles do not bite or sting II VV EE Skin irritation results from contact R S R with Pederin - a vesicant toxin in the IS TI hemolymph YT OF Y The toxin is manufactured by G OF endosymbiont bacteria in their G H A H bodies, and not by the beetles NA AN themselves A [DABCS]  Impact on Humans UU NN Paederus dermatitis caused II VV when the beetle is crushed EE R R against skin S IS TI Skin irritation also called YT Y "dermatitis linearis" or "linear OF G OF dermatitis“ G H A H Because the beetle may be draged across the NA skin in a straight line when trying to brush it AN A away, resulting in linear inflammation on skin. [DABCS]  UU NN Once pederin is on the skin, it may II VV be spread elsewhere on the skin EE R S R "Kissing" or "mirror-image" IS TI lesions where two skin areas come in YT Y contact OF OF G H G Washing the hands and skin with soap H A and water is strongly recommended, if NA AN contact with a rove beetle has occurred. A [DABCS]  Bombardier Beetles UU NN Brachinus sp. (Coleoptera: II VV Carabidae) EE R R They are ground beetles S IS TI Notable for the defense mechanism YT Y that gives them their name OF When disturbed, they eject a hot OF G G H A H noxious chemical spray from tip of NA AN their abdomen, with a popping sound. A [DABCS]  UU NN Spray produced by reaction between II VV two chemical compounds, EE R hydroquinone & hydrogen S R IS peroxide TI YT Y Stored in separate reservoirs in the OF OF abdomen G G H A H And mix when needed in a third NA AN chamber with water & catalytic A enzymes. [DABCS]  UU NN Heat from the reaction brings II VV mixture to near boiling point of EE R R water & produces gas that drives S IS the ejection TI YT Y Damage caused can be fatal to OF OF attacking insects & small creatures, G G and is painful to humans H H Some can direct spray over a A NA AN A wide range of directions. [DABCS]  UU NN In the mixing chamber, enzymes II VV rapidly break down the hydrogen EE R peroxide, R S IS Releasing free oxygen and catalyzing TI YT oxidation of the hydroquinones into Y OF OF p-quinones G H G The reaction is very exothermic A H NA The released energy raises the temp AN A of the mixture to near 100℃ [DABCS]  UU NN II The boiling foul-smelling liquid VV EE partially becomes a gas by flash R S R evaporation IS TI YT Y And is expelled explosively through an outlet valve, with a OF OF G H A G H loud popping sound. NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN The sequence of events takes only a II VV fraction of a second EE R S R The beetle turns its body so as to IS TI direct the jet towards the source of YT Y threat OF OF G H G And discharge the fluid in a wide A H NA range of directions with AN A considerable accuracy. [DABCS]  Brachinus sp. UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Order Hymenoptera UU NN Sawflies, Wasps, Bees, and Ants II VV 3rd largest of all insect groups EE R R Over 150,000 described species S IS Perhaps the most beneficial to humans TI YT Includes best known social insects, but Y OF OF most are solitary in habit G G May be parasitic, non-parasitic, H A H carnivorous, phytophagous, or NA AN omnivorous. A [DABCS]  UU NN Divided into two suborders: II VV 1. Symphyta - sawflies and horntails EE R 2. Apocrita - wasps, ants, bees, and most R S IS parasitic forms TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU Bees, Ants, & Wasps NN II VV known for their roles in pollination and, EE honey production. R R S There are over 20,000 known species of IS TI bees in seven recognized biological YT Y families. OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Bees UU NN four membranous wings and a narrow II waist that sets off the abdomen from the VV EE thorax, or middle region of the body R S R Mouthparts may be either of the biting or IS TI biting-sucking type YT Y Bees - mouthparts are modified into a OF OF sucking apparatus, although many also G H G retain biting mandibles. A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Four interesting Characteristics UU NN Trophallaxis - mutual exchange of food II between larvae & adults in bees, ants & VV EE wasps R S R Hyper-parasitism - parasitic habit of one IS TI species upon another parasitic species YT OF Y Polyembryony - development of many OF G individuals (up to 1,000) from a single egg G H A H Parthenogenesis - production of young NA AN by females that are not fertilized by males A [DABCS]  Bees UU NN Ovipositor = egg-laying organ in II females VV EE R For inserting eggs into hosts or places R S IS that are inaccessible TI YT May be long and modified for piercing, OF Y sawing, or stinging (known as stinger) OF G G Most bees do not sting H A H Only female honeybees & NA AN bumblebees sting A [DABCS]  UU NN Stinger mostly used to deliver the venom II VV Sex determined by whether or not an egg EE is fertilized R R S IS Fertilized eggs develop into females and TI unfertilized ones become males. YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Dance-like movements of honey II VV bees communicate information from one EE R S R individual to another about IS TI YT location, distance, Y OF OF G H G quantity, H A NA quality AN A of a particular food source. [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Ants UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Two ways of causing pain; II VV EE R 1. Those that Grab with their R S IS Mandibles & Inject venom into TI YT the skin Y OF OF 2. Those that Bite and Inject no G H G venom into the wound A H NA AN The chemical involved is Formic A [DABCS] acid  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV There are other Insects that do not have EE R Venom or Poison R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Congo Floor Maggot UU NN Auchmeromyia senegalensis II VV EE (Diptera: Calliphoridae) R R S IS Larvae live in floors of huts TI YT OF Y Attack humans who sleep on the OF G H G H ground and suck blood, causing A NA AN A local swelling and itching. [DABCS]  Tumbu or Skin Maggot fly UU Putsi or Skin Maggot fly, Cordylobia NN II anthropophaga (Diptera: Calliphoridae) VV EE Common in sub-Saharan Africa R R S Eggs laid on damp clothes laid out to dry IS TI YT if not ironed, eggs hatch and burrow into Y skin OF OF G A small boil develops with something G H H moving in the middle (posterior segment with respiratory A spiracles) NA AN A There is a sensation of movement in the [DABCS] lesions.  The Congo Floor Maggot UU NN Auchmeromyia luteola II VV & Cordylobia anthropophaga EE R R Distributed in Africa south of the S IS Sahara TI YT Y Other genera of myiasis-causing OF OF flies have a more direct life cycle The adult flies lay their eggs directly G G H A H NA in, or in the vicinity of wounds on the AN A host [DABCS]  Treatment UU NN Cover with paraffin (Vaseline) II VV EE The maggot will stick out its “head” to get air R R S IS TI YT OF Y Grasp it and pull slowly or do a OF G G proper surgical excision H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  The Human Botfly UU Dermatobia hominis (Diptera: NN II Oestridae) VV EE R Distributed in Central & South R S IS America from Mexico to Argentina TI YT & Chile Y OF OF Lays eggs on other insects G H A G H They hitchhike to human skin and NA AN penetrate quickly A [DABCS]  UU NN II Cochliomyia hominovorax is VV EE R R the primary screw worm fly in the S IS TI YT New World, and Y OF Chrysomya bezziana is the Old OF G G H A H NA World screw worm. AN A [DABCS]  The maggot is bottle-shaped UU NN II VV EE Use paraffin to cause breathing R S R difficulties in the early stages IS TI YT Pull off the “neck” Y OF OF Wait until it is further developed, G H G and you may succeed as with the H A NA tumbu fly. AN A [DABCS]  UU NN Otherwise make a cross incision to II VV pull the maggot out, taking care not EE R R to cut it. S IS TI An alternative is to cover the lesion YT Y with candle wax. OF OF The maggot will burrow its way into G H G the candle wax, and you have got it. A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  UU NN II VV EE R R S IS TI YT Y OF OF G G H A H NA AN A [DABCS]  Jigger fleas (Tunga penetrans) UU (Siphonaptera: Hectopsyllidae) NN II After fertilization, female flea jumps VV EE (feebly) and burrows alongside nailfold or R S R into skin of the groin, loses legs and IS TI produces eggs each night YT Y These must be curetted out and iodine OF OF applied. G H G Jiggers and other unpleasant creatures H A can be avoided if you do not walk around NA AN barefoot. A [DABCS]