UTS Reviewer PDF

MODULE 1 PHILOSOPHY OF THE SELF -PHILOSOPHY: philosophy is a greek word “philiosphia” that means “love of wisdom” the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy: mother of all discipline -Empiricism: No...

MODULE 1 PHILOSOPHY OF THE SELF -PHILOSOPHY: philosophy is a greek word “philiosphia” that means “love of wisdom” the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy: mother of all discipline -Empiricism: No innate knowledge, derived from experience (5 senses, brain). -Rationalism: Innate knowledge, derived from logic and reasoning. Ideal and true. SOCRATES ( AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING) - The self is synonymous with the soul. He believes that every human possesses an immortal soul. Suggests that reality consists of two dichotomous realms: physical realms (changeable, transients, and imperfect) and ideal realms (unchanging, eternal, and immortal). He also suggests that man must live an examined life and a life of purpose and value. Explains that the essence of the self-the soul- is the immortal entity. PLATO (THE SELF IS AN IMMORTAL SOUL) -He was possibly originally named Aristocles after his grandfather, and only later dubbed "Plato" or "Platon" (meaning "broad"). Plato said that the self is synonymous of the soul, he’s philosophy explains as a process of self-knowledge and purification of the soul. There are 3 parts to the soul according to Plato. The first one is the reason, it is the divine essence of that enables us to think deeply, make wise choice, and achieve a true understanding of eternal truth. The second one is Physical appetite, which includes basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. The third one is spirit or passion, which includes basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness and empathy. ARISTOTLE ( THE SOUL IS THE ESSENCE OF THE SELF ) -The soul is merely a set of defining features and does not consider the body and soul as separate entities. Suggests that anything with life has a soul and soul is the essence of all living thing/self. Three kind of soul according to Aristotle. Vegetative soul, include the physical body that can grow. Sentient soul, includes sensual desire, feelings, and emotions. Rational soul, includes the intellectual that allows man to know and understand things. It is what makes the man human. AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS ( THE SELF HAS AN IMMORTAL SOUL ) -St. Augustine believes that the physical body is radically different from the inferior to its inhabitants, the immortal soul. He viewed that body as the spouse of the soul, both attached to one another by a natural appetite. The soul is what governs and defines man. Also suggests that humankind is created in the image and likeness of God. For him, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us” RENE DESCARTES ( I THINK THEREFORE I AM ) -Descartes suggests that If you are thinking about yourself being self-conscious- it is proof that there is a self. Essence of human self according to him is that a thinking entity that doubts understands, analyzes, questions, and reasons. Two-dimension of the human self: the self as thinking and the self a physical body. The self is non material and the physical body is material. JOHN LOCKE ( THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS ) -The human mind at birth is a tabula rasa or a blank slate. The self of personal identity is constructed primarily from sense experiences – what people see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. Conscious awareness and memory of previous experiences are the keys to understanding the self. The essence of the self is its conscious awareness of itself as thinking, reasoning, and reflecting the identity DAVID HUME ( THERE IS NO SELF ) -He suggests that if people carefully examine their sense experience through the process of introspection, they will discover that there is no self. Impression – basic sensations of people such as hate, love, joy, grief, pain, cold and heat. These are vivid perceptions and are strong and lively. Ideas – are thoughts and images from impression so they are less lively and vivid. IMMANUEL KANT ( WE CONSTRUCT THE SELF ) -It is the self that makes experiencing an intelligible world possible because it is the self that is actively organizing and synthesizing all of our thoughts and perceptions. He believes that the self is an organizing principle that makes as unified and intelligible experience possible. The self constructs its own reality, actively creating a world that is familiar, predictable, and most significantly, mine. The self is a product of reason, a regulative principle, because the self regulates experience by making unified experiences possible SIGMUND FREUD ( THE SELF IS MULTI-LAYERED ) -there are three layers about self, first one is conscious self govern by “reality principle”, Rational, practical, and appropriate to environment. Second one is unconscious self govern by “pleasure principle”, Basic instinctual drives. The third one is “preconscious self”, contains material that is not threatening and easily brought GILBERT RYLE ( THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE ) -He believes that the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition of a person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances. “I act therefore I am”. PAUL CHURCHLAND ( THE SELF IS THE BRAIN ) - Advocates the idea of eliminative materialism or the idea that the self is inseparable from the brain and physiology of the body. The physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives people the sense of self. The mind does not really exist because it cannot be experienced by the senses. MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY ( THE SELF IS EMBODIED SUBJECTIVITY ) -Argues that all knowledge about the self is based on the phenomena of experience. The ‘I’ is a single integrated core identity, a combination of mental, physical, and emotional structures around a core identity of the self. Mind and body are unified. MODULE 2 William James (The I-Self and the Me-Self) - I-Self: The thinking self, or the self that knows who they are. - Me-Self: The empirical self, divided into: - Material self: Physical attributes and possessions. - Social self: Interactions in social settings. - Spiritual self: The most intimate, personal part of the self. Carl Rogers (Self Theory: Real vs. Ideal Self) - Self-Concept: One's perception of their own identity. - Real Self: Who we are. - Ideal Self: Who we strive to be. - The closer the real self and ideal self, the more fulfilled a person feels. Donald Winnicott (True vs. False Self) - True Self: The authentic self. - False Self: The self shown to others, often developed to meet societal expectations. Albert Bandura (Self as Proactive and Agentic) Human Agency: People are agents of their own experiences, with beliefs and capabilities to guide their actions. Intentionality- refers to acts done intentionally. Forethought -enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective actions. Self-Reactiveness- involves making choice and choosing appropriate courses of action as well as motivating and regulating them. Self-Reflectiveness- gives the person the ability to reflect upon and the adequacy of his or her thoughts.  Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations. Carl Jung (The Self as the Central Archetype) - Archetypes: Universal models or patterns of the psyche. Major archetypes: - Persona: The social mask. - Shadow: The darker, repressed side of the personality. -Anima/Animus: The feminine side of the male psyche and the masculine side of the female psyche. Sigmund Freud (Construction of Self and Personality) Id: The pleasure-seeking, impulsive part. Ego: The reality-based mediator between Id and Superego. Superego: The moral conscience. Freud’s stages of development include the Oral (the first stage- 1st year), During this stage, babies derive pleasure from oral activities like sucking and biting. Anal (the second stage-2nd year), which occurs around the second year of life. During this stage, the child derives pleasure from the elimination wastes through toilet Training. Anal fixations can lead to anal retentive personality disorder such as having obsession with cleanliness. Anal Expulsion personality disorder such as clumsiness. Phallic (the third stage- 3-6years), Children during this stage derive pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or displaying their genitals. Latency (the fourth stage-7 -12years), At this stage, sexual energy is repressed because children become occupied with school. Genital stages (the fifth stage-adulthood), During this stage, pleasure is again derived from the genital area and individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drives from sexual relationships. Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Stages of Development) Eight stages of development, each involving a key conflict: ○ Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy-1st year)-The child will develop trust if he or she is properly cared for. ○ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood-3years)-being confident and achieving own abilities if the parent allows them to explore, on the other hand, if parents don’t, their child becomes more dependent and feels ashamed or doubtful about their own. ○ Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool-3-5years)-developing a sense of responsibility for children, otherwise it its irresponsible it might develop feelings of guilt. ○ Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age-elementary school)-children face a task developing their knowledge and skills usually taught in school. Sense of industry when they are encouraged in their efforts. ○ Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)-adolescents face the task of finding out who they are, what they are and what they want in life. ○ Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)- intimate relationship with others. ○ Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)-Generativity involves a person’s desire to contribute to the world by teaching, leading, and guiding the next generation and doing activities that will benefit the community. ○ Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)- focused on self-reflection in one’s life. individuals reflect on the important events of their lives. MODULE 3 Sociology and the Self. Sociology studies human relationships and social groups. It helps understand how people’s behaviors and the self are interconnected through group interactions. Charles Horton Cooley (Looking Glass Self) Looking Glass Self: The idea that our self-image develops based on how we think others perceive us. This process involves three stages: 1. We imagine how we appear to others. 2. We imagine the judgments others make about us based on our appearance and behavior. 3. We imagine how others feel about us based on their judgments. This concept shows how our self-identity is shaped through the reflection of others' perceptions. George H. Mead (Theory of Social Self) Social Interaction: Mead's theory emphasizes that the self develops through social interactions, rather than through biological factors. Mead divides the self into two parts: ○ "I" Self: The active, subjective element that reflects the individual's unique traits. ○ "Me" Self: The objective element, representing the internalized societal norms, attitudes, and expectations. Stages of Self Development: ○ Preparatory Stage (0-3 years): Children imitate those around them, especially family. ○ Play Stage (3-5 years): Children start to see themselves in relation to others and learn to communicate using language and symbols. ○ Game Stage (8-9 years): Children begin to understand their social position and that of others. The Self in Modern and Postmodern Society Modern Society: According to Gerry Lanuza, individuals in modern society construct stable identities freely, without being restricted by traditions or customs. Postmodern Society: In contrast, individuals form identities based on the consumption of prestige symbols influenced by mass media and advertising, seeking status and comparison with others rather than utility. MODULE 4 Anthropology and the Self Anthropology explores the interaction between cultural and biological processes in shaping human experience, crossing the boundaries of both the sciences and humanities. James L. Peacock (1986): Anthropology views human experience as a blend of "nature" (genetic inheritance) and "nurture" (sociocultural environment). The Cultural Construction of Self and Identity Edward Tylor defines culture as a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, and customs acquired by individuals as members of society. Culture: Guides behavior and expresses shared understandings that vary across societies (Peacock, 1986). This diversity influences different meanings of self and identity. Self: A product of culture, seen as a human universal (Martin Sökefeld, 1999). Ethnic Identity Emphasizes shared characteristics like language and culture within a group. It is largely acquired in childhood and becomes stable over time (Sökefeld, 1999). Egocentric vs. Sociocentric Self Egocentric: Views the self as autonomous and distinct, capable of independent action. Sociocentric: Sees the self as context-dependent, with no intrinsic or enduring qualities (Robbins, 2012). Identity Toolbox Features like kinship, gender, and age help construct social identities. Language and religious affiliation also play key roles in differentiating individuals, with names symbolically representing cultural identity Three-Phased Rite of Passage (Arnold van Gennep) Separation: Detaching from a former identity. Liminality: Transitioning between identities. Incorporation: The new identity is officially recognized (e.g., marriage). Identity Struggle (Anthony Wallace & Raymond Fogelson) Occurs when there is a discrepancy between the identity a person claims and how others perceive them. Self-Identification Challenges Individuals must overcome obstacles like established habits and externally imposed self-images (Golubovic, 2011). In multicultural societies, people often internalize conflicting cultural models (van Meijl, 2008). 9. The Self Embedded in Culture (Clifford Geertz, 1973) Culture: A system of symbolic forms and control mechanisms that govern behavior. Humans are deeply reliant on external cultural programs for behavior regulation. Western Thoughts on the Self 1. Western Self as Analytic ○ Focuses on analytic, deductive thinking, emphasizing causal links and logical analysis to solve philosophical problems. 2. Western Self as Monotheistic ○ Belief in one Supreme Being. It contrasts qualities like good/evil and emphasizes dualities in existence (e.g., God/Satan, body/soul). 3. Western Self as Individualistic ○ The self is an independent, distinct entity separate from others, belonging only to the individual. 4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic ○ Focuses on material possessions and rational thinking, valuing wealth and success as important aspects of life. Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self Pre-Christian Times to 1850: Philosophical focus on the soul and mind with the distinction between physical and mental nature. 1850–1940: Rise of experimental psychology, shifting focus to observable aspects of the self. 1940–Present: Holistic approach integrating the inner, interpersonal, and social self, with multidisciplinary perspectives converging on self-concept. Eastern Thoughts on the Self 1. Hinduism ○ Focuses on Atman (the soul) and Brahman (absolute reality). Human suffering is seen as the failure to distinguish between the true, unchanging self and the impermanent non-self. The goal is achieving Nirvana through karma and reincarnation. 2. Buddhism ○ Siddharta Gautama (Buddha) teaches that life is suffering due to attachment to desires. Man has no fixed self, and achieving Nirvana involves transcending self-reference through meditation and following the Eightfold Path. 3. Confucianism ○ Emphasizes the relational self and the importance of knowing one’s societal role. Self-realization is achieved through self-cultivation, improving oneself within the context of proper social behavior. 4. Taoism ○ Rejects the relational self of Confucianism, viewing the self as an extension of the cosmos. Taoism emphasizes simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature. The ideal is unity with the Tao, with life governed by the balance of Yin and Yang. Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Thought 1. Philosophy and Religion: ○ Western: Philosophy is distinct from religion. ○ Eastern: Religion and philosophy are intertwined. 2. Source of Knowledge: ○ Western: Uses reason, logic, and empirical evidence. ○ Eastern: Relies on intuition, often tied to religious beliefs. 3. Modes of Cognition: ○ Western: Analytic and deductive, focusing on distinctions and oppositions. ○ Eastern: Synthetic and inductive, focusing on commonalities and harmonies. 4. View of the Universe: ○ Western: Linear, focused on individual progress and personal goals. ○ Eastern: Circular, focused on interconnectedness and the collective. 5. View of Self: ○ Western: Egocentric—The self is independent and distinct. ○ Eastern: Sociocentric—The self is part of a larger collective, with interdependence being key. MODULE 6 Unpacking the Self The Self is a dynamic, evolving process. It encompasses six key aspects: ○ Physical: The body and its functioning. ○ Spiritual: One’s connection with spiritual beliefs or higher purpose. ○ Sexual: The understanding of oneself in terms of sexuality and sexual identity. ○ Material: Relationship with possessions and material wealth. ○ Digital: How one presents and engages with the self in the digital world. ○ Political: Engagement with political ideas and identity. All these aspects contribute to a well-rounded understanding of the self. THE PHYSICAL SELF Physical Self refers to the body’s structure, both internal and external, that performs various functions necessary for living (e.g., breathing, walking). Life Span Stages (Elizabeth B. Hurlock): 1. Prenatal: From fertilization to birth. 2. Infancy: Birth to 2 weeks old. 3. Babyhood: 2 weeks to 2 years old. 4. Early Childhood: 2 to 6 years old. 5. Late Childhood: 6 to 10/12 years old. 6. Puberty: 10/12 to 14 years old. 7. Adolescence: 14 to 18 years old. 8. Early Adulthood: 18 to 40 years old. 9. Middle Adulthood: 40 to 60 years old. 10. Late Adulthood/Senescence: 60 years to death. Factors Affecting Physical Growth & Development: 1. Heredity: Inherited traits from parents. 2. Environment: External factors like nutrition, experiences, and diseases. Theories of the Physical Self 1. Physiognomy: ○ Physical features (facial structure, expressions) reflect personality traits. 2. Five Element Theory: ○ Based on Chinese face-reading practices, this theory ties elements (water, wood, fire, earth, metal) to human characteristics. 3. Hippocrates' Theory of Body Fluids (Humorism): ○ The balance of bodily fluids (humors) affects personality and temperament: Sanguine (red bile): Cheerful, optimistic. Melancholic (black bile): Depressed, pessimistic. Choleric (yellow bile): Easily angered, temperamental. Phlegmatic (phlegm): Sluggish, calm. Body-type Theory: ○ Personality traits are tied to body types: Endomorph (plump): Sociable, easygoing. Mesomorph (muscular): Adventurous, assertive. Ectomorph (thin): Quiet, introverted, artistic Improving Body Image and Inner Self Tips for Enhancing Body and Inner Self: ○ Smile often. ○ Maintain good health and a balanced life. ○ Dress neatly and practice good hygiene. ○ Spend time reflecting and being creative. ○ Respect individuality and build friendships. ○ Face your fears and be independent. ○ Stay positive, be thankful, and pray MODULE 7 The Reproductive System A system designed for reproduction and sexual functions. It influences both an individual’s self-view and their sexual relationships. Development of Sex Characteristics 1. Primary Sex Characteristics: Present at birth; distinguish males (penis, testes) from females (vagina, uterus). 2. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Develop during puberty; examples include breast development and menstruation in females, and deepened voice and facial hair in males. Female Reproductive System (FRS): Clitoris: Erectile tissue that hardens when aroused. Vagina: Passage for sperm, serves as the birth canal. Ovaries: Produce and release egg cells. Uterus: Houses the growing embryo. Cervix: Connects uterus to the vagina. Fallopian Tubes: Transport egg to the uterus Male Reproductive System (MRS): Penis: Organ for urination and delivering sperm. Testes: Produce sperm and hormones. Scrotum: Holds the testes. Vas deferens: Transports semen. Epididymis: Stores sperm. Prostate Gland & Seminal Vesicles: Produce semen. Sexual Arousal and Erogenous Zones Erogenous Zones: Sensitive areas that produce sexual responses when stimulated (e.g., genitals, mouth, breasts). Sexual arousal is influenced by hormonal levels, cognitive factors, and cultural norms. Sexual-Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson): 1. Excitement Phase: Sexual arousal begins (increase in pulse, blood pressure, and breathing). 2. Plateau Phase: Continuation of arousal; in men, the penis becomes fully erect, and in women, the clitoris retracts but stays sensitive. 3. Orgasmic Phase: Men ejaculate, women experience muscle contractions around the vagina. 4. Resolution Phase: The body returns to its normal state Attraction, Love, and Attachment | Adolescence and Attraction: Adolescents form new relationships and experience sexual attraction for the first time, influenced by social norms, physical attractiveness, and interpersonal exchanges. Social Exchange Theory: Attraction develops as a result of shared activities, leading to liking, trust, and love. Romantic Love (Sternberg’s Triangular Theory): 1. Intimacy: Emotional closeness and connectedness. 2. Passion: Physical attraction and sexual desire. 3. Commitment: Decision to maintain love. Helen Fisher’s Theory: 1. Lust: Desire for sexual gratification. 2. Attraction: Often tied to sexual desire. 3. Attachment: Desire for intimate connection; also called affectionate or companionate love.