UTS Midterm-Final PDF

**LESSON 1: ANCIENT PHILOSOPHICAL\ PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF** - **DID YOU KNOW?\ There were more famous and prominent Greek Philosophers compared to Romans.** **PHILOSOPHY** - **Utilizes the curious intellect to find the causes, reasons, and standards of everything.** - **It goe...

**LESSON 1: ANCIENT PHILOSOPHICAL\ PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF** - **DID YOU KNOW?\ There were more famous and prominent Greek Philosophers compared to Romans.** **PHILOSOPHY** - **Utilizes the curious intellect to find the causes, reasons, and standards of everything.** - **It goes past logical examination by investigating all ranges of information such as religion, psychology, politics, physics, and even medicine.** - **The etymological definition of philosophy \"love of wisdom"** **"Know thyself." (SOCRATES)** **SOCRATES\ AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING** - **Born c. 470 BCE, Athens---died 399 BCE, Athens** - **Approximately 71 years old** - **The self is equivalent to the soul** - **Each human has an immortal soul that survives the physical body** - **He was the first to focus on [the total control of reason on the human self]** - **Two dichotomous realms: [physical and ideal realms]** - **[PHYSICAL REALM (World, Body)]** i. **Changeable** ii. **Transient (temporary, momentary)** iii. **Imperfect** - **[IDEAL REALM (Soul)]** i. **Fixed** ii. **Eternal** iii. **Endless** - **The [soul] of the individual strives for wisdom and perfection, and [reason] is the soul\'s instrument to achieve this** - **But then as long as the soul is connected to the body, the pursuit for wisdom is [repressed by the imperfection of the physical realm]** - **That is why Socrates suggests that man must live an examined life, and a life of purpose and value** - **The individual person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes [virtuous and knows the value of himself]** **PLATO\ THE SELF IS AN IMMORTAL SOUL** - **Born c. 428/427 BCE, Athens---died 348/347 BCE, Athens** - **Approximately 80 years old** - **He expounded on Socrates\' notion of the soul** - **Like Socrates, Plato accepts that the self is equivalent with the soul** - **His philosophy can be clarified as a process of [self-knowledge] and [purification of the soul]** - **Three-part soul/self:** i. **Reason- It enables us to think significantly, make wise, and intelligent choices.** ii. **Physical appetite- Basic biological needs, such as, starvation, thirst, and sexual desire.** iii. **Spirit or passion- Basic emotions, such as love, anger, empathy, etc.** - **These three elements of our selves are in [dynamic relationship with one another, sometimes in conflict]** - **When in conflict, Plato believes it is the obligation of [reason] to sort things out** **ARISTOTLE\ THE SOUL IS THE ESSENCE OF THE SELF** - **Born c. 384 BCE, Stagira, Northern Greece---died 322 BCE, Chalcis, Greece** - **Approximately 62 years old** - **The soul is merely a set of defining features** - **Does not consider the body and soul separate entities** - **Anything with life has a soul, but humans differ from other living things because of their capacity for?\....Rational thinking** - **Three types of souls:** i. **The vegetative soul- Includes the physical body that can grow.** ii. **The conscious soul- It includes sensual desires, feelings, and emotions.** iii. **The rational soul- This is what makes** **man human. It comprises of the intellect that allows man to know and understand things.** - **Aristotle proposes that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good, flourishing, and fulfilling life** - **The pursuit of happiness is a search for a good experience that includes doing virtuous actions** **Lesson 2: Modern Philosophical Perspective of the Self** **St. Augustine\ The Self Has an Immortal Soul** - **Born: 13 November 354 AD, Algeria** - **Died: 28 August 430 AD, Algeria** - **Africa/Algerian philosopher** - **Considered as a saint in Catholic Church (St. Augustine of Hippo)** - **Physical body is totally different from and inferior to the immortal soul** - **Body is united with the soul** - **Humankind is created in the [image and likeness of God]** - **Self is known only through knowing God** - **Significance of [reflection], as well as the importance of [confessions]** - **"Knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us.\"** - **\"I am doubting, therefore I am.\"** **Rene Descartes\ I Think Therefore I am** - **Born: 31 March 1596, France** - **Died: 11 February 1650, Sweden** - **French philosopher** - **Father of modern philosophy** - **Cogito ergo sum -- \"I think therefore I am\"** - **[Act of thinking about the self]\--of being self-conscious\--is in itself [proof] that there is a [self]** - **There [are two dimensions of the human self]: the self as a [thinking entity] and the self as a [physical body]** i. **Thinking Self- Non-material, Immortal, Conscious being, Independent** ii. **Physical Body- Material, Mortal, Non-thinking, Fully governed** - **In other words, the soul and the body are independent of one another, and each can exist and function without the other.** **John Locke\ The Self is Consciousness** - **Born: 29 August 1632, United Kingdom** - **Died: 28 October 1704, United Kingdom** - **English philosopher** - **Human mind at birth is [tabula rasa or a blank slate]** - **[Self] or [personal identity] is constructed primarily from [sense experiences].** - **[Conscious awareness] and [memory] of past encounters are the keys to understanding the self** - **Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal (self) identity or knowledge of oneself as a person** - **Consciousness is what makes the identity of a person similar in different situations** - **Utilize the power of [reason] to [gain knowledge] and consequently [use this knowledge to understand experiences]** - **[Reason] plays an important role in helping to figure out the [significance] of [sense experience] and to [reach intelligent conclusions]** **Sigmund Freud\ The Self is Multilayered** - **Born: 6 May 1856, Příbor, Czechia** - **Died: 23 September 1939, United Kingdom** - **Austrian Neurologist** - **Founder of Psychoanalysis** - **Freud holds that the self consists of three layers: conscious, unconscious, and preconscious** - **Conscious Level- Thoughts/Perceptions** i. **It is governed by the "reality principle"** ii. **It is organized in ways that are [rational], [practical], and [appropriate] to the environment** iii. **It usually considers the [realistic demands of the situation], the [consequences of various actions], and the [overriding need to preserve the equilibrium]** - **Pre-conscious Level- Memories/Stored Knowledge** i. **Contains material that is [not threatening and is easily brought to mind]** ii. **It located between the [conscious] and the [unconscious] parts of the self** - **Unconscious Level- Fears, Immoral Urges, Violent Motives, Selfish Needs, Irrational Wishes, Unacceptable Sexual Desires, Shameful Experiences** i. **It is governed by the \"pleasure principle"** ii. **It contains the [basic instinctual drives] including sexuality, aggressiveness, and self destruction; traumatic memories; unfulfilled wishes and childhood fantasies; and thoughts and feelings that would be considered socially taboo** iii. **Freud argues that [much of the self is determined by the unconscious]** - **[Sociology] is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life.** - **For sociologists like Mead and Cooley, the self [does not depend on biological predispositions]; instead, it is a [product of social interaction]. The sense of self emerges as the individual [partakes in society.]** **Charles Horton Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self Theory** - **American sociologist Charles Horton Cooley in 1902, introduced the [looking-glass self] to highlight that the people whom a person interacts with becomes a mirror in which he or she views himself or herself.** - **Self- identity or self-image is achieved through a threefold event, which begins by:** i. **Conceiving an idea of how a person presents himself or herself to others;** ii. **How he or she analyzes how others perceive him or her;** iii. **and how he or she creates an image of himself or herself** **George Herbert Mead's "I" and "Me"** - **Mead is an American sociologist, he also believes in the view that an individual develops a sense of self through social interaction and not the biological preconditions of that interaction** - **Theory of the social self, the ["I" and "Me"]** - **The \"I\" is the [subjective element] and the active site of the self. It represents the natural or spontaneous and [unique traits of the individual]** - **The \"me\" is the [objective element] of the self that represents the [internalized attitudes] and [demands of other people] and the individual\'s awareness of those demands** - **The self\'s full development is attained when the \"I\" and the \"me\" are united** - **The self is not yet formed or present at birth** - **The self develops only with social experience** - **Since there is meaning in human actions, a person infers people\'s intention or direction of action, which may lead them to understand the world from others\' points of view** - **The self will continue to change, along with his or her social experience** **George Herbert Mead's Stages of the Self** **He suggested that the self develops in a three-stage role-taking process.** - **Preparatory Stage** i. **Birth to 3 years old** ii. **Children imitate people around them** iii. **They would imitate behavior without understanding underlying intentions** iv. **They have no sense of self** - **Play Stage** i. **3 to 5 years old** ii. **Children start to view themselves in relation to others as they learn to communicate** iii. **The self develops as they pretend to take roles of specific people or significant** iv. **At this stage, the self is developing** - **Game Stage** i. **6 onwards** ii. **Children understand their social position and those around them** iii. **They become concerned about the generalized others behaviour** iv. **During this stage, the self is now present** **[Lesson 4: Anthropological Perspective of the self]** **WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?** - **Study of mankind** - **Refers to the science of human and their culture** **WHAT IS CULTURE?** - **It describes a collective way of life, or way of doing things** - **It is the sum of attitudes, values, goals, and practices shared by individuals in a group, organization, or society** **ANTHROPOLOGY** - **One of the most complex disciplines** - **Has explored various meanings of culture, self, and identity to better understand the self** - **Concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human experience** **CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGIST** - **Believe that culture and self are complementary concepts that are to be understood in relation to one another.** **James L. Peacock** - **\"anthropology [encroaches] on the territory of the [sciences] as well as the [humanities], and transcends the conventional boundaries of both while addressing questions from the [distant past and the pressing present perhaps with implications for the future].\"** - **IN SHORT\...** - **it is an academic field for understanding the [interconnection] and [interdependence] of [biological] and [cultural aspects] of the human experience at all times and in all places.** - **Peacock mentioned that anthropology have emphasized that [culture is not behavior itself] but the [shared understandings] that guide behavior and are [expressed in behavior].** **"WHO AM I?"\ What could be the answer to this question?** **Anthropology considers human experience as an interplay:** - **["nature"] referring to genetic inheritance of an individual which sets the individual's potentials** - **["nurture"] referring to the sociocultural environment** **(1) THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND IDENTITY** **EDWARD TYLOR-BRITISH ANTHROPOLOGIST** **\"\... that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.\"** - **Identity is understood as a disposition of basic personality features acquired mostly during childhood and, once integrated, more or less fixed** - **This identity therefore makes a human being [a person and an acting individual]** - **Peacock believes that the individual is [neither a robot] nor an [entirely independent self-willed little god] but a [cultural individual]** **TWO WAYS THE CONCEPT OF SELF IS VIEWED IN DIFFERENT SOCIETIES:** - **SOCIOCENTRIC- The self is contingent on a situation or social setting. E.g. Japanese and Chinese** - **EGOCENTRIC- The self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual. E.g. Americans** **WHAT MAKES UP the social identity of a person?** **Identity Toolbox** - **Refers to the features of a person\'s identity that he or she chooses to emphasize in constructing a social self. e.g. kinship, gender, race, language, Religion, family membership** - **In other societies, religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity** **Personal Naming** - **A universal practice with numerous cross-cultural variations, establishes a child\'s birthright and social identity** - **A name is an important device to individualize a person and legitimize him or her as a member of a social group such as a family** - **They are intimate markers of a person which differentiates him or her from others** **Rites of Passage** - **Usually involve ritual activities to prepare individuals for new roles from one stage of life to another** - **Arnold van Gennep believes that changes in one\'s status and identity are marked by a three-phased rite of passage: separation, liminality, and incorporation.** - **Such as birth, puberty, marriage, having children, and death** **SEPARATION- People detach from their former identity to another** **LIMINALITY- This is the transition stage from one identity to another** **INCORPORATION- An individual is reintroduced into society in his new identity** **RITES OF PASSAGE EXAMPLES:** - **Wedding** - **Graduation** - **Retirement** - **Baptism** - **Baptism (and other sacraments)** - **Circumcision** **(2) THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN CULTURE** **EDWARD TYLOR AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST** - **He defines culture as a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which people communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life.** **MAX WEBER GERMAN SOCIOLOGIST** - **\"man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has in which those webs are perceived to be spun,\"** - **Webs are perceived to be [symbolic of culture]** **CLIFFORD GEERTZ** - **\"Without men, no culture, certainly; but equally, and more significantly, without culture, no men\"** **(03) EXAMPLES OF FILIPINO CULTURE THAT DEFINE US** - **Respect for the elderly -- 'po' and 'opo'** - **Close family ties** - **Sense of hospitality** - **Solidarity with others at times of distress** - **Very resilient** - **Inability to say 'no'** - **Very religious and superstitious** - **Longest Christmas celebrations---ever** - **Love to party** - **Love to eat** - **Love to sing** - **And... I Love You All!!! Mwah Mwah!!! Tsup!!! Tsup!!!** **Lesson 5: Psychological Perspective of the Self** **01: Definition of Psychology** - **Psychology is the systematic study of behavior and mental processes.** - **Behavior pertains to observable stimuli or responses with both humans and animals.** - **Mental processes, which are observable indirectly, pertaining to a broad range of mental activities such as thinking, reasoning, imagining, studying, and sensing.** **02: Carl Rogers' Self Theory: Real and Ideal Self** **Carl Rogers** - **American psychologist** - **Among the founders of the humanistic approach in psychology** - **He stated that the self is adaptable and changing the perception of personal identity** - **The self proceeds from interactions with people and awareness of one\'s characteristics and functioning level** - **Human beings are innately aiming for [self-realization or self-actualization]** - **When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may arise** - **Central to achieving self-actualization is the development of [self-concept]** - **Two components of self-concept: the real and the ideal self.** i. **Real Self- Consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of what one is and what one can do** ii. **Ideal Self-It is the person's conception of what one should be or what one aspires to be which includes one's goals and ambitions in life** - **Incongruent** i. **Little overlap** ii. **Self-image is different to the ideal self** iii. **Here, self-actualization will be difficult** - **Congruent** i. **More overlap** ii. **Self-image is similar to the ideal self** iii. **This person can self-actualize** **03: Sigmund Freud's Construction of Self and Personality** **Sigmund Freud** - **According to Freud, the dynamic forces within the self are many and in inevitable conflict** - **He stated that the mind consisted of three structures through which personality is shaped: the [id], [ego], and [superego]** **Id (Unconscious Level)** - **Refers to the aspect of the personality delineated by its need to satisfy urges and desires** - **[Pleasure-seeking] side** **Ego (Conscious Level)** - **Pertains to the I and operates on the [reality principle] and controls the id** - **Can adapt to existing societal aspects** **Superego (Preconscious Level)** - **Denotes the \"conscience\" and \"moral judge\" of one\'s conduct** - **Violation of rules proceeds to feelings of guilt** - **It aims for perfection rather than pleasures** ***The id is the evil within the self, the superego is the angel, and the ego is the middle-man*** **Psychosexual Stages** - **Each stage consists of conflicts that the individual must provide resolutions to effectively move forward to the next stage** - **Every stage has particular needs, and the dissatisfaction of these needs may lead to fixation, which could have long-term negative effects on one\'s personality** 1. **Oral Stage** - **Birth to first year of life** - **Babies derive pleasure from sucking and biting** - **Overindulgence of oral needs may lead to personality disorder such as overeating, smoking, and alcoholism** - **Dissatisfaction may lead to oral aggressive personality disorder such as sarcasm and tactlessness** 2. **Anal Stage** - **Second year of life** - **Child derives pleasure from the elimination of body wastes** - **Through toilet training, the child learns the basic rules of society** - **Anal fixations can lead to anal-retentive personality disorder, such as an obsession with cleanliness, or an anal expulsion personality disorder such as clumsiness** 3. **Phallic Stage** - **Ages 3 and 6** - **Child derive pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or displaying their genitals** - **These behaviors are likely motivated by curiosity about the differences between the anatomy of man and woman** - **During this stage, parents and teachers need to properly educate children about sexuality. Fixations at this stage may lead to abnormal sex behaviors in later life** **[Did you know?]** **Oedipus Complex** - **It involves a boy becoming unconsciously sexually attached to his mother** - **Envy and jealousy towards the father** - **This leads to castration anxiety** - **To cope with this, the son identifies with the father** **Electra Complex** - **It begins with the belief that she's already been castrated** - **She blames her mother for this and experience penis envy** 4. **Latency Stage** - **Ages 7 to 12** - **At this stage, sexual energy is repressed because children become occupied with school.** 5. **Genital Stage** - **Adolescence to adulthood** - **Pleasure is again derived from the genital area and individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drives from sexual relationships** - **Sexual problems may result as a consequence of inappropriate sex behaviors** **04: The Role Erik Erikson's Theory In Understanding the Self** **Erik Erikson** - **Danish-German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst** - **Famous for coining the phrase identity crisis** - **Psychosocial stages; Each stage contains the developmental tasks that are needed to effectively manage and develop efficiently** 1. **[Trust versus mistrust]** - **Birth to 1 year** - **Child will grow trust if he or she is appropriately cared for** - **If the child is not well-cared for, mistrust will likely prevail** 2. **[Autonomy versus shame and doubt]** - **1 to 3 years old** - **Children will assert their independence during this stage** - **If parents provide a venue for exploration, they will become more confident and secure in their abilities** - **If children are excessively protected, they may become excessively dependent on their parents and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities** 3. **[Initiative versus guilt]** - **3 to 5 years of age** - **Maintaining a sense of responsibility among children will lead to the initiative\'s development** - **Caregivers who make the child feel irresponsible will develop guilt feelings** 4. **[Industry versus inferiority]** - **6 to 11 years old** - **Children confront improving knowledge and skills** - **When children are encouraged with their work and efforts, they will acquire a sense of industry** - **Children who were not encouraged and affirmed by their parents and teachers will have uncertainties about their skills and abilities** 5. **[Identity formation versus identity confusion]** - **12 to 18 years old** - **Adolescents confront the task of searching for who they are, what they are, and what they will be in life** - **They are faced with a lot of roles and responsibilities** 6. **[Intimacy versus isolation]** - **19 to 40 years old** - **It is vital that people proceed to intimate relationships with others** - **Those people who fulfill this stage successfully will be likely to develop relationships that are constant and fruitful** - **Failure to advance to intimate relationships during this stage will result in mistrust and isolation** 7. **[Generativity versus stagnation]** - **40 to 65 years old** - **It includes a person\'s longing to provide to the world by teaching, leading, guiding the next generation, and promoting activities that will benefit the community** - **Those who fail to achieve this generativity will feel insignificant** 8. **[Integrity versus despair]** - **65 to forever** - **People look within the self on the important events in their lives** - **If they are fulfilled and honored with their milestones and accomplishments, they will develop feelings of integrity** - **People who are unsuccessful in this stage will have feelings of regret and despair and wasted their lives** **LES. 6 WESTERN AND EASTERN CONCEPTS OF SELF** **Edward T. Hall** - One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to pay attention to those details of life which differentiate them from you. **WESTERN CONCEPT OF SELF** **Geertz** (van Mejl, 2008) - Bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against its social and natural background. - Autonomous, unitary, and stable self. - **Non-western** (such as **Eastern**) people do not possess an individuated self differentiated from the other. - The delusion of the separate self is likely to be stronger in individuals raised in individualistic Western societies. **1. Western Self as Analytic** - **Analytic-deductive**, with emphasis on the causal links (**part-to-whole relationships**). - The **whole is understood when differentiated into parts**. - One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue the cause. **2. Western Self as Monotheistic** - **Belief in one Supreme Being** coexisting with the universe condenses the supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both **qualities of existence** (ex. beautiful/ugly etc.) and **categories of identity or experience** (ex. God/Satan; body/soul; etc.) **3. Western Self as Individualistic** - Coexistence of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in **personal freedom**. - Right to individual freedom provides self-fulfillment opportunities, but also increases the likelihood of **alienation and frustration.** **4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic** - Focused on **material things and favors a rational-empirical approach** over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial \"things.\" - **David Ho (1995)** describes the Western self as an individualistic self that is deeply aware of its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose, and volition. - **Self** - Located at the center within the individual through which the world is perceived. - \"An entity distinct from other-selves and all other entities. - Belongs to the individual and no other. - **Complete ownership of self** becomes a Sovereign subject possessing a sense of personal control. - **If all things are well**, the **self achieves coherence and stability over time**. - In **individualist perspective**, the Western **self** is the measure of all things **(1995; Garcia, 2013),** the source of all reflections. - **Frank Johnson (1985)** **traces the earliest historical roots of the Western concept** of the self to works on million years ago. - **Middle and nineteenth centuries**, **psychology** provided answers to philosophical questions about soul and mind concepts. - **Experimental psychology** came into prominence **during the mid-nineteenth century** and put forth self within the social-interactionist framework. - **Growth of sociology, anthropology, and psychology** in the **late nineteenth century** saw various self-concepts, among them the Western concept. **The Historical Development Of The Western Concept Of Self** **STAGE 1: Pre- Christian times until 1850** - **Philosophical and theological attempt to characterize the self** through the concepts of soul and mind with emphasis on conscious experience of the individual distinction between physical and mental nature of man (**mind-body dualism, and the causality of human behavior**) **STAGE 2: 1850 -- 1940** - **Experimental psychology** in **mid-nineteenth century** led to a change in emphasis from abstract concepts of soul and mind to observable and measurable aspects of human faculties. - The **concept of self re-emerged within the social interactionist framework** in **early 1900s.** **STAGE 3: 1940- Present** - Multidirectional and continuous development of concept of self; **EASTERN CONCEPT OF SELF** - **Philosophy and religion** are twisted together. - Major Eastern religions such as **Hinduism**, **Buddhism, Confucianism,** and **Taoism** are **also** **Eastern thought representatives**. - **Eastern thought** is **pluralistic** **(Garcia, 2013)**. - These **four Eastern thought systems** differ in their approaches to the concept of self, they share the same goal-to teach how to become a perfect person **(Villaba, 1995)**. - **Authentic self** - **Ultimate identity**, revealed in the space between your thoughts. It is the ground of your true being. - Exists prior to the formation of your personality, at which stage you are just a pure being. - **Presupposes the inauthentic self.** **Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought** **HINDUISM** - Expounded in **Vedanta**, a **major school of Indian thought based on Upanishads**, **the classical Indian philosophical treatises**. - **Brahman** is an **absolute reality**, and **Atman** (soul or spirit), **true knowledge of self**, is identical to Brahman. - **Vedanta** characterizes human suffering as the Shiva result of failure to realize the distinction between **true self** (**permanent and unchanging**) and the **non-true** self (**impermanent and changes continually**). - **Goal of the person!** - To have knowledge of the true reality-Brahman. - **Self-realization** is united to all-embracing Brahman. But the realization of true selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of individual identity **(Ho, 1995)**. - **Law of Karma** - Most important doctrine of Hinduism. - All actions are subject to karma. - Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one's life. - The individual is the only one responsible for the consequences of his or her actions **(Garcia, 2008).** - Believe that **Atman**, being an immortal soul, continues to be reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and reaches a state of **nirvana** or **non-birth** **(Garcia, 2008).** - Karma does not end with a body\'s death, its influence may extend through incarnation of the soul. **BUDDHISM** - **Siddhartha Gautama**, the **Buddha**, is the **founder of Buddhism**. - **Root word:** **buddha** meaning **awake**. - Every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. But the seed should be nurtured **(Mansukhani, 2013).** - **Four Noble Truths** (**basic principles of Buddhism**) 1. life is suffering 2. suffering is caused by attachment to desires 3. suffering can be eliminated 4. elimination of suffering is through the practice of the **Eightfold Path** (right view, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration). - **In Buddhist philosophy**, **man** is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs and consciousness) that compose the individual; however, **each of the parts distinctly is not man** **(Villaba, 1995).** - **Man** **has no self** (or **no-soul**). - There is only nothing and all else is an **illusion**. - There is nothing permanent but change. - The **ignorance of the impermanence of everything** may lead to an **illusion of selfhood**. This primal ignorance is the cause of life\'s misery, births and rebirths. - The **perfect moral-intellectual knowledge** becomes powerful in the sense that it eliminates the cause of one\'s misery and awakens one from the illusion of selfhood. The ideal is to experience **Nirvana** (literally meaning, \"**blowing out as of a lamp**"), a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference. This **state of transcendence** can be achieved through **meditation** **(Ho, 1995).** **CONFUCIANISM** - Confucian doctrines are **found in the Analects** (**Conversations of Confucius**). - The core of Confucian thought is the **Golden Rule** or the **principle of reciprocity**: - \"Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you." - The basic virtue or proper conduct is **knowing how to act in relation to others**. - Most important of relationships are the **Five Cardinal Relationships**: - between ruler and minster, between father and son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and between friends. - **Self** is known as a **relational self**. - Individual\'s greatest mission of attaining self-realization wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. - **Self-cultivation** could be accomplished by knowing one\'s role in society and acting accordingly Moral character is perfected by continuously taking every opportunity to Improve oneself in thought and action. - There will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior. - The individual is **set to respond to what is socially required rather than to one\'s personal needs and goals**. - **Self** is a **subdued self** **(Ho, 1995).** **TAOISM** - **Chinese counterculture**. - **Taoists** reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. - **Self** - Extension of the cosmos not of social relationships. - One of the limitless forms of the Tao **(Ho, 1995)**. The **Tao** is commonly regarded as **Nature** that is the foundation of all that exists **(Garcia, 2008).** - It is not bounded by time and space. - The ideal is to **identify with the Tao**: The **perfect man has no self**. - Selflessness is attained when the distinction between \"I\" and \"other\" dissolves. - **Selfless person** leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and society **(Ho, 1995).** - Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity and harmony with nature should govern one\'s life. - There should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the **Yin** and **Yang** **(Abella, 2016)**. - **There is oneness of the Tao.** **THE DICHOTOMY OF WESTERN AND EASTERN CONCEPTIONS OF SELF** - East and West appreciate each other\'s attempts to understand the self. - Eastern and Western thoughts is about nature and self. **EASTERN THOUGHTS** - Extensive literature about the self exists. - Raise questions about the ultimate meaning of life. - Developed self-so far theories as they have investigated what it means to be a human being. - **Relational** rather than individualistic. - Self is considered not in isolation but relation to others, society, and the universe. - Aim to transform consciousness, feelings, emotions, and one\'s relation to other people and the world. - Eastern philosophers\' theories demonstrate a socio-centric view presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the concrete situation or role occupied by the person **(Robbins, 2012).** - Offer a variety of techniques for deeper understanding of the self. - Great reverence for nature. **(Sarza, 2013)** - Nature promotes introspection into one\'s inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment can be attained by observing nature. **WESTERN THOUGHTS** - **Self**- autonomous, unitary, and stable **(van Meijl, 2008).** - **Freud, Erikson, Bandura, Rogers, Jung, James, Mead, Cooley**, and others have examined Western thoughts about the self. They emphasize the **importance of scientific methods** to provide satisfactory answers to understanding the self. - Concerned with absolute beginnings or endings in time and space. - Modern Western culture tends to set the individual against nature, which is a dangerous enemy; this viewpoint can be traced from **Christian theologies** that consider nature fallen evil. **ASIAN THOUGHT** - Looks at life in the three-mode cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. - Does not dichotomize between one\'s way of thinking and one\'s way of living. One\'s thoughts, actions, and speech should be in harmony. - Considers intuition a valid means to gain wisdom; it does not rely mainly on reason and logic. **COMPARATIVE MATRIX OF WESTERN AND EASTERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE SELF** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Dimension** | **Western Thought** | **Eastern Thought** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Frame of Reference | Separation between | Religion and | | | religion and | philosophy are | | | philosophy/spirituali | intertwined. | | | ty | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Examples of Schools | -Scholasticism | -Hinduism | | of | | | | | -Rationalism | -Buddhism | | Thought Belief | | | | Systems | -Empiricism | -Confucianism | | | | | | | -Phenomenology | -Taoism | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Notable Philosophers | -Greek Triumvirate: | -Confucius | | | Socrates, Plato, | | | | Aristotle | -Lao Tzu | | | | | | | -René Descartes | -Siddhartha Gautama | | | | | | | -John Locke | -(Buddha) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Source of Knowledge | Made use of reason | Trusted intuition and | | | rather than faith to | is often associated | | | pursue wisdom. | with religious | | | | beliefs. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Modes of Cognition | Analytic and | Synthetic and | | | deductive | inductive | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Emphasis | Distinctions and | Commonalities and | | | oppositions | harmonies | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | View of the Universe | Linear | Circular | | and Life | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | View of Self | **Egocentric** | **Sociocentric** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Subject-Object | Duality of self-as | Simultaneously | | Distinction | subject (knower) and | subject and object | | | | (both the knower and | | (Bipolar Qualities of | self-as-object | known) | | Self) | (known) | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Theological View | **Monotheistic** | **Polytheistic** | | | | (pluralistic) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Ideal | Self- actualization | Achieve a balanced | | | through personal | life and find one\'s | | | | role in society | | | growth | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Cultural Framework | **Individualism** | **Collectivism** | | | | | | | a\. The self is | a\. The self is an | | | distinct and | integrated part of | | | autonomous | | | | | the universe the | | | entity; it is an | society | | | independent part of | | | | the universe and the | b\. Independence and | | | society | | | | | connectedness are | | | b\. Interdependence | core values | | | and self reliance | | | | are core values | c\. No distinctions | | | | between personal | | | c\. Prioritize | | | | personal goals over | and group, or if | | | group goals | there is a | | | | | | | d\. Characterized by | distinction, the | | | exchange | personal goals are | | | relationship | | | | | subordinate to the | | | e\. Uniqueness, | group goals | | | sense of direction | | | | | d\. Characterized by | | | purpose and volition | communal | | | are the acknowledged | | | | features of self | relationship | | | | | | | f\. Personal success | e Conformity and | | | is social behaviors | obedience are | | | | | | | important | essential | | | | | | | | f\. Duty towards all | | | | others is | | | | | | | | important | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+