Spanish-American War and Panama Canal (PDF)

**[THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES]** The United States was simply unprepared for war. What Americans had in enthusiastic spirit, they lacked in military strength. The navy, although improved, was simply a shadow of what it would become by World War I. The **United States Army** was u...

**[THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES]** The United States was simply unprepared for war. What Americans had in enthusiastic spirit, they lacked in military strength. The navy, although improved, was simply a shadow of what it would become by World War I. The **United States Army** was understaffed, underequipped, and undertrained. The most recent action seen by the army was fighting the Native Americans on the frontier. Cuba required summer uniforms; the US troops arrived with heavy woolen coats and pants. The food budget paid for substandard provisions for the soldiers. What made these daunting problems more managable was one simple reality. Spain was even less ready for war than the United States. **Battle of Manila Bay** Prior to the building of the Panama Canal, each nation required a two-ocean navy. The major portion of Spain\'s Pacific fleet was located in the Spanish Philippines at **Manila Bay**. Under orders from Assistant Secretary of the Navy [[Theodore Roosevelt]](https://ushistory.org/us/43a.asp), **Admiral George Dewey** descended upon the Philippines prior to the declaration of war. Dewey was in the perfect position to strike, and when given his orders to attack on May 1, 1898, the American navy was ready. Those who look back with fondness on American military triumphs must count the **Battle of Manila Bay** as one of the greatest success stories. The larger, wooden Spanish fleet was no match for the newer American steel navy. After Dewey\'s guns stopped firing, the entire Spanish squadron was a hulking disaster. The only American casualty came from sunstroke. The Philippines remained in Spanish control until the army had been recruited, trained, and transported to the Pacific. **Invading Cuba** The situation in Cuba was far less pretty for the Americans. At the outbreak of war the United States was outnumbered 7 to 1 in army personnel. The invading force led by **General William Shafter** landed rather uneventfully near **Santiago**. The real glory of the Cuban campaign was grabbed by the Rough Riders. Comprising cowboys, adventurous college students, and ex-convicts, the Rough Riders were a volunteer regiment commanded by **Leonard Wood**, but organized by Theodore Roosevelt. Supported by two African American regiments, the Rough Riders charged up **San Juan Hill** and helped Shafter bottle the Spanish forces in Santiago harbor. The war was lost when the Spanish Atlantic fleet was destroyed by the pursuing American forces. **Treaty of Paris** The **Treaty of Paris** was most generous to the winners. The United States received the Philippines and the islands of **Guam** and **Puerto Rico**. Cuba became independent, and Spain was awarded \$20 million dollars for its losses. The treaty prompted a heated debate in the United States. **Anti-imperialists** called the US hypocritical for condemning European empires while pursuing one of its own. The war was supposed to be about freeing Cuba, not seizing the Philippines. Criticism increased when Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo waged a 3-year insurrection against their new American colonizers. While the Spanish-American War lasted ten weeks and resulted in 400 battle deaths, the **Philippine Insurrection** lasted nearly three years and claimed 4000 American lives. Nevertheless, President McKinley\'s expansionist policies were supported by the American public, who seemed more than willing to accept the blessings and curses of their new expanding empire. **[THE PANAMA CANAL]** A canal was inevitable. A trip by boat from New York to San Francisco forced a luckless crew to sail around the tip of South America --- a journey amounting to some 12,000 miles. The new empire might require a fast move from the Atlantic to the Pacific by a naval squadron. Teddy Roosevelt decided that the time for action was at hand. The canal would be his legacy, and he would stop at nothing to get it. **First Obstacles** There were many obstacles to such a project. The first was Great Britain. Fearing that either side would build an isthmathian canal and use it for national advantage, the United States and Great Britain agreed in the 1850 **Clayton-Bulwer Treaty** that neither side would build such a canal. A half century later, the now dominant United States wanted to nullify this deal. Great Britain, nervous about its **South African Boer War** and an increasingly cloudy Europe, sought to make a friend in the United States. The **Hay-Pauncefote Treaty** permitted the United States to build and fortify a Central American canal, so long as the Americans promised to charge the same fares to all nations. One roadblock was clear. **Selecting Panama** The next question was where to build. **Ferdinand de Lessups**, the same engineer who designed the **Suez Canal**, had organized a French attempt in Panama in the 1870s. Disease and financial problems left a partially built canal behind. While it made sense that the United States should buy the rights to complete the effort, Panama posed other problems. Despite being the most narrow nation in the region, Panama was very mountainous, and a complex series of locks was necessary to move ships across the isthmus. Nicaragua was another possibility. The canal would be situated closer to the United States. The terrain was flatter, and despite Nicaragua\'s width, there were numerous lakes that could be connected. Volcanic activity in Nicaragua prompted the United States to try to buy the territory in Panama. But Panama was not an independent state. To obtain the rights to the territory, the United States had to negotiate with Colombia. The **1903 Hay-Herran Treaty** permitted the United States to lease a six-mile wide strip of land at an annual fee. The treaty moved through the United States Senate, but the Colombian Senate held out for more money. Roosevelt was furious. Determined to build his canal, Roosevelt sent a U.S. gunboat to the shores of Colombia. At the same time, a group of \"revolutionaries\" declared independence in Panama. The Colombians were powerless to stop the uprising. The United States became the first nation in the world to recognize the new government of Panama. Within weeks, the **Hay--Bunau-Varilla Treaty** awarded a 10-mile strip of land to the United States, and the last hurdle was cleared. **Constructing the Canal** Or so it seemed. Construction on the canal was extremely difficult. The world had never known such a feat of engineering. Beginning in 1907, American civilians blasted through tons of mountain stone. Thanks to the work of **Walter Reed** and **William Gorgas**, the threats of yellow fever and **malaria** were greatly diminished. When Theodore Roosevelt visited the blast area, he became the first sitting American President to travel outside the country. Finally, the deed was done. In 1914, at the cost of \$345 million, the **Panama Canal** was open for business. **THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY AND LATIN AMERICA** For many years, the Monroe Doctrine was practically a dead letter. The bold proclamation of 1823 that declared the Western Hemisphere forever free from European expansion bemused the imperial powers who knew the United States was simply too weak to enforce its claim. By 1900, the situation had changed. A bold, expanding America was spreading its wings, daring the old world order to challenge its newfound might. When Theodore Roosevelt became President, he decided to reassert Monroe\'s old declaration. **The Platt Amendment** Cuba became the foundation for a new **Latin American policy**. Fearful that the new nation would be prey to the imperial vultures of Europe, United States diplomats sharpened American talons on the island. In the **Platt Amendment of 1901**, Cuba was forbidden from entering any treaty that might endanger their independence. In addition, to prevent European gunboats from landing on Cuban shores, Cuba was prohibited from incurring a large debt. If any of these conditions were violated, Cuba agreed to permit American troops to land to restore order. Lastly, the United States was granted a lease on a naval base at **Guantanamo Bay**. Independent in name only, Cuba became a legal **protectorate** of the United States. **Roosevelt Corollary** Convinced that all of Latin America was vulnerable to European attack, President Roosevelt dusted off the Monroe Doctrine and added his own corollary. While the Monroe Doctrine blocked further expansion of Europe in the Western Hemisphere, the Roosevelt Corollary went one step further. Should any Latin American nation engage in \"**chronic wrongdoing**,\" a phrase that included large debts or civil unrest, the United States military would intervene. Europe was to remain across the Atlantic, while America would police the Western Hemisphere. The first opportunity to enforce this new policy came in 1905, when the **Dominican Republic** was in jeopardy of invasion by European debt collectors. The United States invaded the island nation, seized its customs houses, and ruled the Dominican Republic as a protectorate until the situation was stablilized. **A Big Stick** The effects of the new policy were enormous. Teddy Roosevelt had a motto: \"**Speak softly and carry a big stick**.\" To Roosevelt, the big stick was the new American navy. By remaining firm in resolve and possessing the naval might to back its interests, the United States could simultaneously defend its territory and avoid war. Latin Americans did not look upon the corollary favorably. They resented U.S. involvement as **Yankee imperialism**, and animosity against their large neighbor to the North grew dramatically. By the end of the 20th century, the United States would send troops of invasion to Latin America over 35 times, establishing an undisputed sphere of influence throughout the hemisphere.