Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Final Exam Study Guide NUTRITION BASICS 1. Name and describe the main characteristics of the six types of nutrients. Carbohydrates: Organic, energy-yielding (4 cal/g), primary energy source. Lipids: Organic, energy-yielding (9 cal/g), used for insulation and ene...

Final Exam Study Guide NUTRITION BASICS 1. Name and describe the main characteristics of the six types of nutrients. Carbohydrates: Organic, energy-yielding (4 cal/g), primary energy source. Lipids: Organic, energy-yielding (9 cal/g), used for insulation and energy storage. Proteins: Organic, energy-yielding (4 cal/g), build and repair tissues. Vitamins: Organic, micronutrient, regulate bodily processes (e.g., vision, immunity). Minerals: Inorganic, regulate fluid balance, support bone health, and nerve function. Water: Inorganic, essential for chemical reactions, transport of nutrients, and temperature regulation. 2. Identify the energy-yielding nutrients and list the number of Calories per gram provided by each one. Carbohydrates: 4 cal/g Lipids (fats): 9 cal/g Proteins: 4 cal/g 3. List the AMDR for each of the energy-yielding macronutrients. Carbohydrates: 45-65% of total calories. Fat: 20-35% of total calories. Protein: 10-35% of total calories. PLANNING A HEALTHY DIET 1. Interpret a Nutrition Facts label to assess the nutritional content of a food. Start with serving size: Adjust calculations for servings consumed. Check calories: Total per serving and compare to daily needs. Review % Daily Values (%DV): Aim for 20% for fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Look at the ingredients list: Prioritize whole foods over processed ingredients. DIGESTION 1. List the organs involved in digestion and absorption and describe their functions. Mouth: Chewing breaks down food; salivary amylase starts starch digestion. Esophagus: Moves food to the stomach via peristalsis. Stomach: Mixes food into chyme, begins protein digestion with pepsin. Small Intestine: Main site for digestion and nutrient absorption; bile and enzymes work here. Large Intestine: Absorbs water, electrolytes, and forms feces. 2. Explain the role of various hormones and enzymes involved in the process of digestion. Hormones: Gastrin: Stimulates gastric acid production. CCK (Cholecystokinin): Stimulates bile and pancreatic enzyme release. Secretin: Promotes bicarbonate secretion to neutralize stomach acid. Enzymes: Salivary Amylase: Breaks down starch. Pepsin: Breaks proteins into peptides. Pancreatic Lipase: Breaks triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. ABSORPTION 1. Compare the absorption processes for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Carbohydrates: Absorbed as monosaccharides in the small intestine via active transport or facilitated diffusion. Proteins: Absorbed as amino acids and small peptides via active transport in the small intestine. Fats: Absorbed as fatty acids and monoglycerides, reassembled into triglycerides, and transported via lymphatic chylomicrons. CARBOHYDRATES 1. Differentiate between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, and name three examples of each. Monosaccharides: Glucose, fructose, galactose. Disaccharides: Sucrose, maltose, lactose. Polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen, cellulose. 2. List the hormones and enzymes involved in carbohydrate digestion, their roles, production sites, and main sites of action. Salivary Amylase: Produced in salivary glands; begins starch digestion in the mouth. Pancreatic Amylase: Produced in pancreas; continues starch digestion in the small intestine. Maltase/Sucrase/Lactase: Produced in the small intestine; break down disaccharides into monosaccharides. 3. Understand blood sugar homeostasis and the hormones involved. Insulin: Lowers blood glucose by facilitating cellular uptake. Glucagon: Raises blood glucose by promoting glycogen breakdown in the liver. 4. Describe the health effects of consuming dietary fiber. Promotes bowel regularity, lowers cholesterol, stabilizes blood sugar, and increases satiety. LIPIDS 1. Identify the three classifications of lipids found in foods and the body. Triglycerides: Primary form of stored fat. Phospholipids: Compose cell membranes, act as emulsifiers. Sterols: Include cholesterol, which is a precursor to hormones. 2. Describe the structure and functions of phospholipids. Structure: Glycerol backbone, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. Functions: Build cell membranes, emulsify fats. 3. Explain the key differences between HDL and LDL cholesterol.  HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein): Transports cholesterol to the liver for excretion (“good” cholesterol). LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein): Delivers cholesterol to tissues, contributing to plaque buildup (“bad” cholesterol). 4. Recognize dietary examples of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated Fats: Butter, lard, coconut oil. Unsaturated Fats: Olive oil, avocados, salmon. 5. List the hormones and enzymes involved in lipid digestion, their roles, production sites, and main sites of action. Hormones: CCK: Stimulates bile release. Secretin: Stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion. Enzymes: Pancreatic Lipase: Digests triglycerides in the small intestine. 6. Understand how long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) are digested, absorbed, and transported. Digested by bile and lipase. Absorbed as micelles, reassembled into triglycerides, and transported in chylomicrons through the lymphatic system. PROTEIN 1. Identify and describe the various functions of proteins in the body. Build and repair body tissues. Serve as enzymes and hormones. Maintain fluid balance and acid-base balance. Support immune function (antibodies). Provide energy if needed (secondary role). 2. Explain how proteins differ from other macronutrients. Contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Can form enzymes, hormones, and structural components. 3. List the conditions under which proteins are denatured. Heat, acid (e.g., in the stomach), alcohol, mechanical agitation. 4. Understand the purpose of deamination and transamination reactions. Deamination: Removal of an amino group from an amino acid for energy production or glucose synthesis. Transamination: Transfer of an amino group to form a new amino acid. 5. List the hormones and enzymes involved in protein digestion, their roles, production sites, and main sites of action. Hormones: Gastrin: Stimulates HCl secretion in the stomach. Enzymes: Pepsin: Breaks proteins into peptides (stomach). Trypsin and Chymotrypsin: Break peptides into amino acids (small intestine, produced by the pancreas). MACRONUTRIENT METABOLISM 1. Explain the metabolic pathways utilized for each macronutrient. Carbohydrates: Glycolysis → Pyruvate → Acetyl-CoA → TCA cycle → Electron Transport Chain (ETC). Lipids: Lipolysis → Fatty acids enter beta-oxidation → Acetyl-CoA → TCA cycle. Lipogenesis (fat storage) occurs during caloric surplus. Proteins: Deamination → Carbon skeleton enters gluconeogenesis or TCA cycle. BODY SIZE & HEALTH 1. Distinguish between body weight and body composition. Body Weight: Total mass of the body (muscle, fat, water, bone). Body Composition: Proportion of fat mass and lean mass. 2. Understand the factors that determine the EER (Estimated Energy Requirement). Age, gender, weight, height, and physical activity level. 3. Memorize the BMI weight classification table. Underweight: 200 mg/day). Consumption of unpasteurized dairy products and raw seafood/meat. Use of certain medications or herbal supplements without medical guidance. 3. List and discuss the maternal health complications that may develop during pregnancy. Gestational diabetes: Elevated blood sugar levels during pregnancy, increasing risk of type 2 diabetes. Preeclampsia: High blood pressure and protein in the urine; can progress to eclampsia, a life-threatening condition. Anemia: Low iron levels, reducing oxygen delivery to tissues and the fetus. Hyperemesis gravidarum: Severe nausea and vomiting leading to dehydration and nutrient deficiencies. 4. List the main types of neural tube defects. Spina bifida: Incomplete closure of the spinal cord, leading to mobility issues. Anencephaly: Absence of major brain and skull portions, often fatal. 5. Understand the hormonal control of lactation. Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in the mammary glands. Oxytocin: Triggers the milk letdown reflex, enabling milk to flow during nursing. FOOD SYSTEMS & THE ENVIRONMENT 1. Identify the diseases related to severe macronutrient deficiencies. Kwashiorkor: Protein deficiency, causing edema and growth failure. Marasmus: Severe calorie deficiency, leading to extreme weight loss and muscle wasting. 2. Define the term malnutrition, and explain the main causes of malnutrition in the world.  Malnutrition: A state of poor nutrition caused by insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced nutrient intake. Causes: Poverty, food insecurity, political instability, natural disasters, and lack of education about nutrition. 3. List the major environmental problems associated with growing more food. Land degradation due to overfarming. Water pollution from pesticides and fertilizers. Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural practices and livestock. Loss of biodiversity from monoculture farming. Food waste, with significant energy and resources lost. CHRONIC DISEASE 1. Define the following terms: Stroke: A medical condition where blood flow to the brain is blocked or a blood vessel bursts, causing tissue damage. Atherosclerosis: The buildup of fatty plaques in arterial walls, narrowing arteries and reducing blood flow. Thrombus: A stationary blood clot that blocks a blood vessel. Embolus: A traveling blood clot that can obstruct smaller blood vessels. 2. Name and differentiate between the two major types of diabetes mellitus. Type 1 Diabetes: Autoimmune disease; the pancreas produces little to no insulin. Type 2 Diabetes: Insulin resistance; cells do not respond effectively to insulin, often linked to obesity. 3. List the diagnostic criteria for diabetes. Fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL. HbA1c ≥6.5%. 4. Identify the risk factors for hypertension. Obesity, high sodium intake, sedentary lifestyle, stress, genetics, and smoking. 5. List the diagnostic criteria for hypertension.  Normal: