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Ascending Tracts Nerve pathways that transmit sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the brain Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, memory formation, and the regulation of the autonomic nervous system Action Potential A rapid, temporary change in...

Ascending Tracts Nerve pathways that transmit sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the brain Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, memory formation, and the regulation of the autonomic nervous system Action Potential A rapid, temporary change in electrical potential that travels along the membrane of a neuron or muscle cell Afferent Nerve fibers that transmit sensory information from the periphery to the central nervous system Amygdala A group of nuclei in the limbic system involved in processing emotions and forming emotional memories Arachnoid Mater The middle layer of the meninges, which is a thin, web-like membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord Autonomic Nervous System The division of the nervous system that regulates involuntary functions such as heartbeat, digestion, and respiration Axon The long, slender extension of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body Axon Hillock The area of a neuron where the axon originates and where action potentials are generated Axon Terminal The end of an axon, where neurotransmitters are stored and released to transmit information to other neurons or target cells Brainstem The lower part of the brain, which connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord and controls vital functions such as respiration and heart rate Calcium Ions Positively charged ions (Ca2+) that play a crucial role in nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and other cellular processes Cell Body The central part of a neuron containing the nucleus and other organelles, responsible for maintaining the cell's structure and function Central Sulcus A prominent groove in the cerebral cortex that separates the frontal and parietal lobes Cerebellum A region of the brain located below the cerebrum, involved in coordinating movement, balance, and posture Cerebral Cortex The outer layer of the cerebrum, composed of folded gray matter, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as perception, thought, and decision-making Cerebrospinal Fluid A clear, colorless liquid that fills the ventricles of the brain and surrounds the brain and spinal cord, providing protection and nourishment Cerebrum The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions, including reasoning, memory, and voluntary muscle control Descending Tracts Nerve pathways that transmit motor information from the brain to the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system Dendrite A branched extension of a neuron that receives signals from other neurons and transmits them towards the cell body Dermatomes Specific areas of the skin innervated by sensory nerves from a single spinal nerve root Diencephalon A region of the brain containing the thalamus and hypothalamus, responsible for integrating sensory information and regulating autonomic functions Dura Mater The thick, tough outermost layer of the meninges that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord Efferent Nerve fibers that transmit motor information from the central nervous system to the periphery Endocytosis The process by which cells take up materials Epinephrine A hormone and neurotransmitter, also known as adrenaline, that plays a role in the "fight or flight" response by increasing heart rate and blood flow Exocytosis The process by which cells release substances, such as neurotransmitters, by fusing vesicles with the cell membrane Exteroceptors Sensory receptors that detect external stimuli, such as touch, temperature, and pain Foramen A natural opening or hole in a bone, often allowing passage for nerves and blood vessels Frontal Lobe The front region of the cerebral cortex, involved in higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, planning, and problem-solving Ganglion A cluster of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system, often forming a relay point for nerve signals Grey Matter Regions of the brain and spinal cord composed mainly of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites, involved in processing and integrating information Hindbrain The lower part of the brain, including the cerebellum, pons, and medulla, responsible for basic life functions and coordination of movement Hippocampus A region in the limbic system of the brain involved in learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories Hypothalamus A small region of the brain below the thalamus, responsible for regulating autonomic functions, hormone release, and maintaining homeostasis Interneuron A neuron that connects other neurons within the central nervous system, involved in the processing and integration of information Interoceptors Sensory receptors that detect internal stimuli, such as blood pressure, body temperature, and blood oxygen levels Lateral Fissure A deep groove in the cerebral cortex that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes Limbic Area/System A group of interconnected brain structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, involved in emotional processing, memory, and motivation Longitudinal Fissure The deep groove that divides the cerebral hemispheres of the brain Meninges The three-layered protective membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord, consisting of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater Midbrain A region of the brainstem responsible for visual and auditory reflexes, as well as some motor control Neurotransmitter A chemical messenger released by neurons to transmit signals to other neurons, muscles, or gland cells Nerve A bundle of nerve fibers (axons) that transmit electrical impulses between the central nervous system and other parts of the body Neuron A specialized nerve cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals Norepinephrine A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the "fight or flight" response, regulating arousal, attention, and mood Occipital Lobe The region of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain, responsible for processing visual information Parasympathetic Division The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for "rest and digest" functions, promoting relaxation and conserving energy Parietal Lobe The region of the cerebral cortex located near the top and Peripheral Nervous System The part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body, consisting of nerves and ganglia Pia Mater The delicate innermost layer of the meninges, closely adhering to the surface of the brain and spinal cord Proprioceptors Sensory receptors that detect changes in body position and movement, providing information about muscle tension, joint position, and balance Reflex An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus, mediated by the spinal cord or brainstem Sodium Ions Positively charged ions (Na+) that play a crucial role in nerve transmission and muscle contraction Spinal Cord The cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers enclosed within the vertebral column, responsible for transmitting signals between the brain and the rest of the body Sympathetic Division The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for "fight or flight" functions, increasing alertness and preparing the body for action Synapse The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a target cell, where electrical or chemical signals are transmitted Temporal Lobe The region of the cerebral cortex located on the sides of the brain, responsible for processing auditory information and some aspects of memory Thalamus A structure in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory information and plays a role in regulating consciousness and sleep Ventricle A cavity within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which helps protect and nourish the brain Vesicle A small, membrane-bound sac within a cell that stores or transports substances Vestibular Pertaining to the inner ear structures involved in balance and spatial orientation Visceral Pertaining to the internal organs and the structures that cover and support them White Matter Regions of the brain and spinal cord composed mainly of myelinated axons, responsible for transmitting signals between different areas of the central nervous system Aqueous Humor The clear, watery fluid that fills the anterior chamber of the eye, providing nutrients and maintaining intraocular pressure Ciliary Body The ring-shaped structure in the eye that contains the ciliary muscles and produces aqueous humor Cornea The transparent, curved outer layer at the front of the eye that helps focus light entering the eye Extraocular Muscles The group of muscles that control eye movement and allow for the coordination of both eyes Fovea Centralis The small, central region of the retina with the highest concentration of photoreceptors, responsible for sharp central vision Intrinsic Muscles Muscles located within the structures they act upon, such as the muscles that control the shape of the iris and lens in the eye Iris The colored, ring-shaped muscle in the eye that controls the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil Lens The transparent, flexible structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina Macula Lutea The small, yellowish area near the center of the retina that includes the fovea centralis and is responsible for high-acuity vision Optic Nerve The bundle of nerve fibers Photoreceptors Specialized nerve cells in the retina that are sensitive to light and convert it into electrical signals for processing by the brain Retina The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye, containing photoreceptors that convert light into electrical signals Sclera The tough, white outer covering of the eyeball, providing protection and helping maintain the shape of the eye Suspensory Ligament The fibrous ring that connects the ciliary body to the lens, enabling the lens to change shape for focusing Visual Field The entire range of vision that can be seen by the eye without moving the head Visual Pathways The neural pathways that transmit visual information from the retina to the brain for processing Vitreous Humor The clear, jelly-like substance that fills the large cavity of the eye behind the lens, helping to maintain the shape of the eye and transmit light to the retina Basilar Membrane The flexible, vibrating structure within the cochlea that supports the hair cells responsible for detecting sound vibrations Cochlea The spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that contains the organ of Corti and is responsible for converting sound vibrations into nerve impulses Eustachian Tube The narrow tube connecting the middle ear to the throat, helping to equalize air pressure on both sides of the eardrum External Ear The outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna (auricle) and the external auditory meatus (ear canal) External Auditory Meatus The ear canal, which carries sound from the external ear to the eardrum Hair Cell A specialized sensory cell in the inner ear that detects sound vibrations and converts them into nerve impulses Incus The anvil-shaped bone in the middle ear that transmits sound vibrations from the malleus to the stapes Internal Ear The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals, responsible for hearing and balance Malleus The hammer-shaped bone in the middle ear that transmits sound vibrations from the eardrum to the incus Middle Ear The air-filled cavity between the eardrum and inner ear, containing the ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) that transmit sound vibrations Organ of Corti The sensory organ in the cochlea that contains hair cells and is responsible for converting sound vibrations into nerve impulses Oval Window The membrane-covered opening in the inner ear that transmits sound vibrations from the stapes to the fluid-filled cochlea Perilymph The fluid that fills the space between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, helping to transmit sound vibrations Round Window The membrane-covered opening in the inner ear that allows fluid in the cochlea to move in response to sound vibrations Semicircular Canal One of the three fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear, responsible for detecting rotational movements and maintaining balance Stapes The stirrup-shaped bone in the middle ear that transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window Tectorial Membrane A gelatin Tympanic Membrane The eardrum, a thin, cone-shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear and vibrates in response to sound waves Gustation The sense of taste, involving the detection and perception of chemical substances in the mouth Olfactory Bulb The structure in the forebrain that receives sensory input from the olfactory receptor neurons and processes information about smell Olfaction The sense of smell, involving the detection and perception of airborne molecules called odorants Olfactory Gland Glands located in the olfactory mucosa that produce mucus to moisten the surface of the epithelium and dissolve odorant molecules Olfactory Mucosa The specialized epithelial tissue lining the nasal cavity that contains olfactory receptor neurons and supports the sense of smell Papillae Small, raised projections on the tongue that contain taste buds and increase the tongue's surface area for better contact with food Taste Bud A cluster of sensory receptor cells on the tongue that detect the chemical substances responsible for the basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami) Chemoreceptor A sensory receptor that detects changes in the chemical composition of the body or the environment, such as taste or smell Mechanoreceptor A sensory receptor that detects physical deformation or pressure, such as touch, vibration, or stretch Nociceptor A sensory receptor that detects potentially harmful stimuli, such as intense heat, cold, or pressure, and initiates the sensation of pain Thermoreceptor A sensory receptor that detects changes in temperature and is involved in the sensation of warmth or coldness