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Week 7 Key Concepts ​ Social Constructionism (Spector & Kitsuse, 1977): Social problems are constructed through activities and claims-making, using rhetorical devices like motifs and counter-rhetorics to persuade audiences. ​ Public Arenas Model (Hilgartner & Bosk, 1988): Competit...

Week 7 Key Concepts ​ Social Constructionism (Spector & Kitsuse, 1977): Social problems are constructed through activities and claims-making, using rhetorical devices like motifs and counter-rhetorics to persuade audiences. ​ Public Arenas Model (Hilgartner & Bosk, 1988): Competition among public arenas (media outlets, nonprofits) for attention, constrained by carrying capacities like time, space, and budget. ​ 12 News Values (Jewkes, 2015): Criteria for crime stories, including drama, violence, proximity, cultural resonance, and celebrity involvement. ​ The CSI Effect: Unrealistic public expectations of forensic science, affecting legal practices and increasing demands for evidence in trials. Media's Role in Crime Construction ​ Sacco's Analysis: ○​ Media transforms private troubles into public issues, focusing on dramatic or atypical crimes. ○​ News often portrays crime inaccurately, e.g., overrepresentation of violent crime and mischaracterizing victim-offender demographics. ○​ Police narratives dominate, marginalizing alternative perspectives. ○​ Crime waves and moral panics emerge through amplified reporting. ​ Greer's Victim Hierarchies (2017): ○​ Media creates "ideal victims" (e.g., women, children, elderly) who evoke sympathy. ○​ Excludes or marginalizes non-white, male, or non-heterosexual victims, perpetuating biases like "Missing White Woman Syndrome." Specific Topics` 1.​ Juvenile vs. Adult Crime: ○​ Juvenile crime underreported unless sensational or violent. ○​ Adult crime (e.g., murder) often prioritized in broadcasts. ○​ Media framing reinforces "stranger danger" despite real risks differing. 2.​ Violence in Film (Giroux, 2002): ○​ Categories: ​ Ritualistic: Violence as spectacle (e.g., horror films). ​ Symbolic: Reflects societal meaning (e.g., "Crash"). ​ Hyper-real: Senseless, extreme violence (e.g., Tarantino films). ○​ Impacts public perception of violence and normalizes aggressive imagery. 3.​ Cultural Distortion: ○​ As crime rates decrease, media emphasis on violence increases. ○​ Stories are localized or dramatized to fit cultural and political narratives, e.g., reinforcing law-and-order ideologies.  4.​ Moral Panics: ○​ Media exaggerates events to define societal threats. ○​ Focus on youth deviancy and vulnerable groups during periods of social change. ○​ Authorities and media amplify deviance to justify policy responses. Findings from O’Grady et al. (2010): ​ Crime reporting prioritizes events aligning with cultural preoccupations, often neglecting complex or nonviolent crimes. ​ Corporate and white-collar crimes are underreported due to their complexity and lack of identifiable victims. Examination Points ​ Exam Relevance: ○​ Rhetorical devices and their use in claims-making. ○​ Differences in media representation of juvenile vs. adult crime. ○​ Influence of the CSI effect on legal systems. ○​ Examples of moral panics and victim hierarchies. Week 8 ch2 Conventional (Street) Crime: ​ Definition: Crimes often involve direct harm or theft, such as assault, robbery, and Burglary. ​ Patterns: ○​ Often occurs in public places. ○​ Perpetrated by individuals across various demographics. ○​ Includes violent (e.g., assault) and property crimes (e.g., theft). White-Collar Crime: ​ Definition: Non-violent crimes committed for financial or organizational gain, often within professional settings. ​ Patterns: ○​ Committed by individuals or organizations (occupational vs. corporate crime). ○​ Harder to detect and often internally managed rather than through criminal courts. Patterns in Crime 1. Age: ​ General Rule: Crime is most prevalent among youth aged 15-25. ​ Explanations: ○​ Developmental: Young individuals lack life experience and self-control. ○​ Lifestyle/Routine Activity Theory: Youth engage in high-risk activities with fewer guardians. ○​ Exceptions: Older individuals may dominate in white-collar crimes or organized crime. 2. Gender: ​ General Rule: Men are more likely to commit crimes, particularly violent and property offenses. ​ Explanations: ○​ Socialization: Men are raised to take risks and assert dominance, while women are socialized to conform and avoid danger. ○​ Opportunities: Gender roles influence exposure to crime opportunities (e.g., workplace fraud for men, and shoplifting for women). ○​ Control Theory: Women are subjected to stricter informal controls in society, limiting deviance. 3. Ethnicity/Race: ​ Patterns: ○​ Overrepresentation of minority groups (e.g., Indigenous and Black Canadians) in the criminal justice system. ○​ Disparities are often tied to systemic inequalities and discrimination. ​ Explanations: ○​ Cultural Conflict Theory: Conflicts arise when laws reflect dominant societal values that clash with minority group norms. ○​ Economic Inequality: Poverty and marginalization contribute to higher crime rates in disadvantaged groups. ○​ Systemic Discrimination: Unequal enforcement and judicial practices amplify disparities. Theories of Crime 1. Routine Activity Theory: ​ Concept: Crime occurs when a motivated offender encounters a suitable target without adequate guardianship. ​ Example: An unlocked car in a quiet area presents an opportunity for theft. 2. Social Control Theory: ​ Concept: Crime results from weak bonds to societal institutions like family, education, and employment. ​ Example: Individuals with unstable family lives or unemployment are more likely to commit crimes. 3. Differential Association Theory: ​ Concept: Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who endorse deviance. ​ Example: A person joins a gang and adopts their criminal behaviors and justifications. 4. Strain Theory: ​ Concept: Crime arises when people experience a gap between societal goals (e.g., wealth) and the means to achieve them. ​ Example: An individual might resort to theft if unable to afford basic needs. 5. Labeling Theory: ​ Concept: Being labeled as "deviant" or "criminal" reinforces further deviance due to societal exclusion. ​ Example: A young offender might reoffend after being treated solely as a "criminal" by peers and institutions. Measuring Crime 1. Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR): ​ Definition: Police-reported data providing standardized crime statistics. ​ Strengths: Reliable for trends in violent and property crimes. ​ Weaknesses: Misses unreported crimes (the "dark figure of crime") and depends on police practices. 2. Self-Report Surveys: ​ Definition: Individuals report crimes they’ve committed or experienced, often revealing hidden offenses. ​ Strengths: Provides insight into minor or unreported crimes. ​ Weaknesses: Subject to exaggeration or memory errors. 3. Victimization Surveys:  ​ Definition: Surveys individuals about their experiences as crime victims. ​ Strengths: Highlights unreported crimes and reasons for not reporting. ​ Weaknesses: Limited by memory recall and subjectivity. Applications of Crime Theories and Patterns ​ Crime is not evenly distributed in society; it correlates with age, gender, and socioeconomic conditions. ​ Different theories (e.g., strain, labeling, control) help explain why individuals deviate. ​ Understanding patterns and theories aids in tailoring crime prevention and intervention strategies. Categories of Crime (UCR) CH3 ​ Violent Crime: Crimes against a person (e.g., assault, robbery, sexual assault, homicide). Involve harm or threat of harm to individuals. ​ Property Crime: Crimes involving theft or damage to property (e.g., shoplifting, mischief, motor vehicle theft). ​ Other Categories: ○​ Traffic Criminal Code Offenses: E.g., impaired driving. ○​ Federal Statutes: Crimes under acts like the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Violent Crimes Assault ​ Definition: Intentional use of force or threat without consent. ○​ Level 1: Minimal harm or threat of harm. ○​ Level 2: With a weapon or causing bodily harm. ○​ Level 3: Aggravated assault, involving serious injury or danger to life. Sexual Assault ​ Definition: Any non-consensual sexual act involving force, threats, or coercion. ○​ Level 1: Most common; involves minor physical harm. ○​ Level 2: Involves weapons or causing bodily harm. ○​ Level 3: Aggravated; serious harm or life endangerment. ​ Patterns:  ○​ Victims often know their offenders (friends, acquaintances, family). ○​ Stigma and trauma reduce reporting rates. Homicide ​ Definition: The killing of a person caused by another. ​ Categories: ○​ First-Degree Murder: Planned, deliberate, or occurring during another serious crime (e.g., kidnapping). ○​ Second-Degree Murder: Intentional but not premeditated. ○​ Manslaughter: Unintentional killing due to provocation or negligence. ○​ Infanticide: Killing of a child under one year by their mother, often tied to mental health issues. ​ Patterns: ○​ Often involves individuals known to the victim. ○​ Motivations include passion, financial gain, or drug-related conflicts. Robbery ​ Definition: Theft combined with violence or threat of violence. ​ Types: ○​ Personal Robberies: E.g., street muggings. ○​ Institutional Robberies: E.g., banks or convenience stores. Criminal Harassment ​ Definition: Repeated, unwanted attention that causes fear for safety (e.g., stalking). Property Crimes Mischief (Section 430) ​ Definition: Acts that destroy, damage, or interfere with property or its lawful use. ​ Examples: Vandalism, graffiti, or tampering with utilities. Shoplifting ​ Definition: Theft from retail stores, often by concealing items. ​ Offender Types: ○​ Boosters: Professionals stealing for resale. ○​ Snitches: Amateurs stealing for personal use. ​ Theories: Opportunity-driven, often influenced by financial need or peer pressure. Motor Vehicle Theft  ​ Definition: Unauthorized taking of a vehicle. ​ Motivations: ○​ Joyriding (common among youth). ○​ Profit (selling vehicles or parts, often linked to organized crime). ○​ Use in another crime. Fraud ​ Definition: Deceitful actions to gain money, property, or valuables. ​ Types: ○​ Identity theft (using someone’s identity to commit crimes). ○​ Confidence schemes (gaining trust for scams). Break and Enter ​ Definition: Illegal entry into a premise with intent to commit theft or another crime. ​ Pattern: Declining due to advanced security systems. Theories of Crime Strain Theory ​ Crime arises when individuals experience pressure to achieve societal goals but lack legitimate means (e.g., poverty driving theft). Routine Activities Theory ​ Crime occurs when three elements converge: ○​ A motivated offender. ○​ A suitable target. ○​ Absence of capable guardianship (e.g., security systems or witnesses). Social Learning Theory ​ Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who commit and justify crimes. Rational Choice Theory ​ Offenders weigh the costs and benefits of committing a crime, making rational decisions to offend when benefits outweigh risks. Labeling Theory  ​ Being labeled as a criminal can lead to further deviance due to stigma and limited opportunities for reintegration. Crime Patterns Violent Crimes ​ Tend to involve known offenders (family, acquaintances). ​ Motivated by passion, disputes, or financial gain. ​ Gender differences: Males are more likely to be offenders; women are more likely to be victims of intimate partner violence. Property Crimes ​ Opportunistic: Often committed by youth or non-professionals. ​ Intra-class: Victims and offenders are often from similar socioeconomic backgrounds. ​ Declining rates for traditional theft due to security improvements; increasing cyber-related fraud. Regional Variations ​ Violent crimes are more common in the Prairie provinces. ​ Organized motor vehicle theft is prevalent in eastern Canada, while joyriding dominates in the west. Practical Applications ​ Crime Prevention: ○​ Target Hardening: Increasing security measures (e.g., alarms, surveillance). ○​ Community Policing: Building trust to improve reporting and deterrence. ○​ Education: Awareness campaigns on fraud and cybercrimes. ​ Justice System: ○​ High attrition rates in sexual assault cases highlight the need for victim support and legal reform. ○​ The role of intent and premeditation in distinguishing crime severity (e.g., murder vs. manslaughter). Week 10 - Morality Crimes & Organized Crime CH3 Crimes Against Public Order (85-92) 1.​ Public Order Crimes (Morality Offences): ○​ Victimless crimes (e.g., gambling, prostitution, drug use). ○​ Conflict crimes (mala prohibita): Violate societal moral values or norms. 2.​ Theories of Morality and Law: ○​ Objectivist View: Laws reflect shared beliefs and function to maintain order. ○​ Subjectivist View: Morality and laws are shaped by power and change over time. 3.​ The Harm Principle (John Stuart Mill): ○​ Legal sanctions should only apply to actions causing actual harm to others. Gambling: History ​ Gambling was historically illegal and difficult to regulate. ​ Legalized forms include casinos, charity lotteries, and provincial gambling initiatives (e.g., Windsor Casino).k Prostitution: Laws, Patterns, CJS Response 1.​ Definition of Prostitution: ○​ Sexual activity, economic transaction, and emotional indifference. 2.​ Types of Prostitution: ○​ Streetwalkers, brothel workers, call girls, massage parlor workers, etc. 3.​ Prostitution Laws in Canada: ○​ Selling sexual services is legal, but most related activities (e.g., purchasing, advertising) are criminalized. ○​ Key statutes include Section 286.1 (purchasing offence) and Section 286.2 (material benefit offence). History of Drug Laws in Canada 1.​ Key Legislation: ○​ Opium Act (1908): Targeted non-medical opium use, influenced by racial and economic tensions. ○​ The Opium and Drug Act (1911): Expanded criminalization to include possession and trafficking. ○​ The Opium and Narcotic Act (1920): Addressed a wider range of substances and increased penalties. 2.​ Moral Entrepreneurs:  ○​ Figures like Mackenzie King and Emily Murphy influenced early drug laws, often using racialized claims. 3.​ The Chinese Immigration Act (1885): ○​ Introduced discriminatory measures such as the "head tax" and linked immigration with the opium trade. Theories (Legislation/Drugs) 1.​ Definition of Drug Crimes: ○​ Possession: Holding or obtaining controlled substances. ○​ Production: Manufacturing or cultivating substances. ○​ Trafficking: Selling, transferring, or distributing substances. 2.​ Models of Drug Control: ○​ Criminal Model: Treats drug use as a crime, focusing on punishment. ○​ Medical Model: Treats drug use as a health issue, emphasizing harm reduction (e.g., safe injection sites). 3.​ Sociological Theories: ○​ Moral Panic Theory: Amplification of societal fears about drug use. ○​ Conflict Theory: Highlights power imbalances in the criminalization of marginalized groups. Classifying Organized Crime and Gangs (Wortley & Ellis) 1.​ Four Levels of Gangs: ○​ Level 1: Fluid groups with no formal structure. ○​ Level 2: Semi-organized groups with occasional criminal activities. ○​ Level 3: Territorial gangs with planned criminal activities. ○​ Level 4: Highly structured groups involved in international operations. 2.​ Characteristics of Organized Crime: ○​ Hierarchical structure with specialized roles. ○​ Goals include profit and power, often achieved through violence and legitimate business fronts. 3.​ Roots of Organized Crime: ○​ Demand for illegal goods and services. ○​ Use of violence and predatory tactics to maintain control. The Toronto Street Gang Pilot Project 1.​ Key Findings: ○​ Canadian-born individuals dominate gang membership (76%).  ○​ Social factors include poverty, geographic isolation, and stigmatization. 2.​ Gang Activities: ○​ Drug trafficking, weapon smuggling, extortion, and prostitution. Week 11 CH11 Key Topics to Focus On: 1.​ White-Collar Crime (WCC): ○​ Definition: 1.​ Sutherland (1939): Illegal acts by respectable persons within their occupational roles. 2.​ Helmkamp & Ball (1996): Violations of fiduciary responsibility and public trust for personal or organizational gain. ○​ Categories: 1.​ Professional (Occupational): ​ Offender: Individual. ​ Victim: Organization. ​ Example: Embezzlement. 2.​ Corporate (Organizational): ​ Offender: Organization. ​ Victim: Public or consumers. ​ Example: Price fixing. ○​ Typologies: 1.​ Edelhertz (1970): ​ Ad-Hoc Violations (e.g., tax fraud). ​ Abuses of Trust (e.g., embezzlement). ​ Collateral Business Crimes (e.g., environmental law violations). ​ Confidence Games (e.g., fraudulent securities sales). 2.​ Moore (1980): ​ Swindles (e.g., counterfeit stock certificates). ​ Chiseling (e.g., insider trading). ​ Exploitation (e.g., bribery). ​ Influence Peddling (e.g., selling information). ​ Embezzlement (e.g., pilferage). ​ Client Frauds (e.g., healthcare overbilling). 2.​ Theoretical Explanations: ○​ External Factors: 1.​ Capitalism: Profit-driven motives lead to unethical practices (e.g., Ford Pinto case).  2.​ Competition: Cutting corners in competitive industries (e.g., unsafe vehicle designs). 3.​ Market Structure: Monopoly power allows unchecked behavior. 4.​ Opportunity: Loopholes in business operations (e.g., pollution cover-ups). ○​ Individual Factors: 1.​ Differential Association (Sutherland): Criminal behavior learned in workplace culture. 2.​ Techniques of Neutralization: ​ Denial of responsibility. ​ Denial of injury. ​ Denial of victim. ​ Condemnation of condemners. ​ Appeal to higher loyalties. 3.​ Controlling WCC: ○​ Conflict theorists (Reiman, Quinney, Chambliss): Rare prosecution, light sentencing, bias against small businesses. 4.​ McDonaldization of Punishment (Ritzer, 1993): ○​ Efficiency, Calculability, Predictability, Control. 5.​ Crime Prevention: ○​ Broken Windows Theory: 1.​ Main tenet: Address minor disorders to prevent serious crime. 2.​ Policy: Focus on order maintenance, often criticized for racial profiling. ○​ Situational Crime Prevention (Clarke, 1980): 1.​ Crime arises from immediate opportunities. 2.​ Strategies: Reduce opportunities, increase risks, decrease rewards. ○​ Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED): 1.​ Surveillance: Natural (clear sightlines), Mechanical (CCTV). 2.​ Access Control: Barriers to entry (fences, locks). 3.​ Territoriality: Ownership promotes maintenance. 4.​ Maintenance: Upkeep reduces crime opportunities. ○​ Crime Prevention Strategies: 1.​ Deterrence: Increase penalties. 2.​ Nurturant: Improve early life experiences. 3.​ Protection/Avoidance: Target hardening, routine changes. 6.​ CCTV Surveillance Concerns: ○​ Privacy loss, voyeurism, and reliance on technology. ○​ Loss of guardianship: Public assumes safety, reducing active intervention. Week 12 - New Crime CH12 Key Topics & Concepts Human Trafficking and Human Smuggling ​ Differences: ○​ Human Smuggling: Consent-based illegal transportation across borders for financial benefit. ○​ Human Trafficking: Exploitation through force, coercion, or deception for labor, sex, or other purposes. ​ Types and Patterns: ○​ Smuggling: Primarily voluntary, involves border crossings. ○​ Trafficking: Includes domestic and international operations; common types involve sexual exploitation and forced labor. ​ Canada’s Context: ○​ Predominantly affects women and girls, particularly in domestic trafficking (e.g., sexual exploitation). ○​ Key perpetrators often include known individuals (partners, acquaintances). Cyber-Related Violations in Canada ​ Key examples: ○​ Identity theft, extortion, child pornography, fraud. ○​ Highlighted by challenges such as anonymity, accessibility, and global reach (Clough, 2011). Organized Crime and Technology ​ Cybercrime Categories: ○​ Computer as object: Includes hacking, malware, and data breaches. ○​ Computer as tool: Facilitates offenses like fraud, harassment, and child exploitation (Clough, 2011). ​ Biometrics: ○​ Used for security and identification in Canada (e.g., border control). Technology and Criminal Opportunity ​ Categories and Types: ○​ Phishing scams, hacking, and online fraud. ​ Characteristics of Cybercrime (Clough, 2011): ○​ Scale, anonymity, portability, and global scope. Challenges of Cybercrime (Clough, 2011) ​ Offenses Against Computer Systems: ○​ Hacking, denial of service attacks, and malware. ​ Content-Related Offenses:  ○​ Includes child pornography and online harassment. ​ Computer-Related Offenses: ○​ Fraud and forgery using digital systems. Key Definitions ​ Globalization: Integration of economies and societies; facilitates transnational crimes. ​ Transnational Crime: Crimes crossing national borders, such as human trafficking and cybercrime.