Family Structures and Diversity PDF

Key Concepts Family types and structures: Nuclear family Extended family (vertically and horizontally extended) Reconstituted families (stepfamilies) Singleparent families Samesex families Beanpole families Living apart together (LATs) Cohabitation Household vs. Family Theoretical Perspec...

Key Concepts Family types and structures: Nuclear family Extended family (vertically and horizontally extended) Reconstituted families (stepfamilies) Singleparent families Samesex families Beanpole families Living apart together (LATs) Cohabitation Household vs. Family Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism: Functions of the family (e.g., Parsons\' \'Functional Fit\' theory) Murdock's 4 functions of the family Parsons' Warm Bath theory and primary socialization Marxism: The family and capitalism (e.g., Engels on inheritance) Zaretsky's idea of the family as a support for capitalism Family as a unit of consumption Feminism: Liberal, Marxist, Radical, and Difference feminism Gender roles in the family (domestic division of labor) Feminist views on the patriarchy in family life Domestic violence and gender inequality in the family New Right: Criticism of family diversity and the decline of the traditional nuclear family Murray's view on the underclass and welfare dependency Postmodernism: Greater family diversity and individual choice (Stacey) Fragmented family structures in a postmodern society Beck's 'Risk Society' and the negotiated family Family Diversity: Changes in family structures over time The Rapoports\' five types of family diversity (organizational, cultural, class, life course, cohort) Demographic changes leading to diversity (e.g., rising divorce rates, immigration) Rise in cohabitation, samesex families, and childfree couples Marriage, Cohabitation, and Divorce: Changing patterns of marriage and cohabitation Reasons for the decline in marriage Rise in cohabitation and nonmarital births Rise of civil partnerships and samesex marriage Changing patterns of divorce: Legal changes (e.g., Divorce Reform Act 1969) Secularization Rising individualism Feminist explanations (greater expectations, women's independence) Consequences of divorce for adults and children Childhood: Social construction of childhood (e.g., Aries\' historical study of childhood) Changing position of children in society (industrialization, laws, and education) March of progress view vs. conflict view of childhood (e.g., toxic childhood, inequalities between children) Childcentered families Impact of technology and the media on childhood Domestic Division of Labour: Parsons' instrumental and expressive roles (segregated vs. joint conjugal roles) Young and Willmott: Symmetrical family Feminist critiques (e.g., Oakley, Duncombe & Marsden, 'triple shift') Impact of paid work on gender roles (e.g., Gershuny, dualearner households) Impact of migration and ethnicity on domestic roles Power and Control in Families: Decision making within families (e.g., Edgell\'s study) Domestic violence and sociological explanations (Dobash & Dobash, Radical Feminism) The 'dark side' of family life (abuse, violence, and power imbalances) Demography: Birth rate and fertility rate trends: Reasons for declining birth rates and fertility rates (contraception, career opportunities for women) Impact of declining fertility (e.g., ageing population, childcenteredness) Death rate and life expectancy: Reasons for declining death rates (improvements in healthcare, living standards) Ageing population and its social/economic impacts Migration and its impact on families (diversity, family structure changes) Social Policy and the Family: The role of the state in shaping family life: Welfare policies (e.g., Child Benefit, parental leave) Conservative, Labour, and Coalition government family policies Functionalist, Marxist, and Feminist perspectives on family policy Family policy in a global context (e.g., China's onechild policy, pronatalist/antinatalist policies) Niche Concepts & Studies: Dark Figure of Domestic Abuse: Unreported and hidden domestic violence (explore why women or men may not report abuse, how this skews statistics). The feminist critique of police and legal system responses to domestic violence. Negotiated Family (Beck & BeckGernsheim): Families are now more open to negotiation and individual choice due to the decline of traditional norms. The idea of 'zombie families,' which appear stable but are vulnerable to collapse due to insecurity and instability in modern society. Individualisation Thesis (Giddens and Beck): Argues that in late modernity, individuals are freed from traditional roles (like gender roles) and can construct their own identities. Linked to the rise of cohabitation, singleparent families, and samesex relationships. Confluent Love (Giddens): The idea that modern relationships are based on pure love and emotional intimacy rather than duty or obligation (e.g., arranged marriages). Plastic Sexuality (Giddens): Sexuality as a flexible, evolving concept that is more about personal fulfilment and identity rather than procreation. Families of Choice (Weeks, Donovan, and Heaphy): Study on how samesex couples and individuals construct their own 'families of choice,' often including friends and other supportive figures rather than biological relatives. Living Apart Together (LAT relationships): Couples who are in a relationship but live in separate households (for career or personal reasons). The increase of this phenomenon among both younger and older generations, breaking the traditional norms of cohabitation and marriage. Pure Relationship (Giddens): Modern relationships are maintained for emotional satisfaction and personal happiness, rather than obligation or tradition. Links to rising divorce rates and family breakdown as people prioritize emotional fulfillment. Divorce Extended Family (Stacey): Stacey\'s research on postmodern families highlights how divorced families may still maintain complex networks of relationships with expartners, stepfamilies, etc., contributing to family diversity. Ethnicity and the Family: Cultural Variation in Family Structure: Ethnic minority families, particularly AfricanCaribbean families, often have a higher proportion of loneparent families. South Asian families are more likely to have extended family structures due to cultural and religious values around family unity. Migration and Family Structures: The impact of global migration on family forms and diversity (e.g., transnational families, where members live across different countries but maintain close connections). Domestic Labour: Emotion Work (Duncombe & Marsden): Women often take on the emotional burden in the family, ensuring that relationships run smoothly and everyone\'s emotional needs are met. This is part of the \"triple shift\" (paid work, housework, and emotion work). Commercialisation of Housework (Silver & Schor): The rise of technology and services that help reduce the domestic workload (e.g., cleaning services, ready meals, dishwashers) and its impact on the division of labour. Childhood and Parenting: Toxic Childhood (Palmer): Suggests that modern technological advancements and societal changes have led to a decline in the quality of childhood due to increased screen time, consumerism, and reduced outdoor play. Helicopter Parenting: The trend of overinvolved, micromanaging parents who hover over their children's lives, leading to increased anxiety and reduced independence in children. Boomerang Children: Refers to young adults who leave the family home (e.g., for university) but return to live with their parents due to financial constraints, job insecurity, or housing issues. Policies and Family Life: Child Support Agency (CSA) and Child Maintenance Service: Governmental efforts to enforce child support payments from nonresident parents. The impact of these policies on loneparent families and gender inequality. Elderly Care: Demographic ageing and the rise in family responsibility for elder care, particularly the role of middleaged women in caring for both elderly parents and their own children (known as the \"sandwich generation\"). Demography: Impact of Globalization on Family Life: The role of transnational families and how family life is affected by global migration patterns. Globalization has led to more fluid family structures, often with members spread across different countries. Fertility Rate Trends: Detailed examination of why some countries, like the UK, have experienced recent rises in birth rates (e.g., due to migration patterns or delayed childbearing among careerfocused women). Ageing Population: The strain on public services, such as healthcare and pensions, due to the increasing elderly population, and how families are expected to take on a greater role in elder care. Postmodernism & Diversity: Blurring of Boundaries: The idea that in postmodern societies, the boundaries between family types are becoming increasingly blurred, with more fluidity between traditional roles (e.g., stayathome dads, coparenting). Family Practices (Morgan): Morgan's concept of 'family practices' focuses on what families do rather than what they are. Family life is seen as a series of routine actions and negotiations, differing from household to household. Niche Policies and Global Comparisons: Nordic Family Policies: Genderneutral policies (e.g., paternity leave) that encourage shared responsibility for childcare and have led to a more equal division of labour in families. Onechild Policy (China): Its effects on family structure and gender balance, as well as the longterm social consequences of policy changes (now relaxed). Pronatalist and Antinatalist Policies: Case studies from different countries (e.g., France\'s pronatalist policies vs. India\'s antinatalist measures) and their effects on family size and dynamics. Family and Technology: Digital Natives: How the digital age is influencing family life, especially in terms of parenting styles, children\'s autonomy, and the management of screen time. Impact of Social Media on Relationships: The influence of technology on maintaining family relationships, especially in transnational families, but also how social media may fuel relationship conflicts and lead to emotional distance. Functionalist Theorists: George Murdock: Identified the four essential functions of the family (sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational). Talcott Parsons: Developed the concept of the nuclear family as being suited to industrial society. Introduced ideas about instrumental and expressive roles. Marxist Theorists: Friedrich Engels: Argued that the family arose to solve issues of inheritance under capitalism. Eli Zaretsky: The family as a support mechanism for capitalism, with women providing unpaid domestic labor. Feminist Theorists: Ann Oakley (Liberal Feminist): Criticized the idea of the symmetrical family and argued that men's participation in housework was overstated. Fran Ansley (Marxist Feminist): Described women as \"takers of shit,\" absorbing the frustrations of men who are oppressed at work. Delphy and Leonard (Radical Feminists): The family as a patriarchal institution where men benefit from women's unpaid labor. Jenny Somerville (Liberal Feminist): Acknowledges progress made by women, but argues that gender inequality persists within family life. New Right Theorists: Charles Murray: Criticized the breakdown of the nuclear family, linking it to welfare dependency and the emergence of an underclass. Postmodern and Late Modern Theorists: Judith Stacey: Emphasized family diversity and argued that modern families no longer conform to a single, traditional model. Anthony Giddens: Developed the concept of the 'pure relationship' based on personal satisfaction rather than traditional family roles. Ulrich Beck: Described the 'negotiated family' in a 'risk society,' where traditional family structures have weakened, and relationships are based on negotiation and choice. Demographers and Theorists on Childhood: Philippe Ariès: Argued that childhood is a social construct and that the modern concept of childhood developed relatively recently. Sue Palmer: Coined the term 'toxic childhood,' describing how modern society negatively affects children\'s wellbeing. Neil Postman: Suggested that childhood is disappearing due to children being exposed to adult media and knowledge prematurely. Theorists on Domestic Division of Labour: Young and Willmott: Found that the family was becoming more symmetrical, with men and women sharing household responsibilities more equally. Jonathan Gershuny: Argued that as women enter paid work, men are doing more domestic work, though the change is gradual ('lagged adaptation'). Elizabeth Bott: Discussed joint and segregated conjugal roles within the family. Duncombe and Marsden: Developed the concept of the 'triple shift' (housework, paid work, and emotion work) performed by women. Theorists on Power, Control, and Domestic Violence: Dobash and Dobash: Pioneering study on domestic violence, highlighting that it is often an expression of patriarchal control over women. Pahl and Vogler: Explored control over family finances, identifying the pooling system and allowance system as ways couples manage money. I\'ve sorted the key terms into the appropriate categories and provided a brief definition for each: 1\. Role and Function of the Family \- Stabilisation of adult personalities: Functionalist theory (Parsons) where the family provides emotional support, stabilizing adult members. \- Instrumental role: The role of men in providing financial support to the family (Parsons). \- Economic function: The family provides financial support, meeting the economic needs of its members. \- Ideological state apparatus: Althusser\'s concept that the family teaches capitalist norms and values, maintaining the status quo. \- Warm bath theory: Parsons\' idea that the family relieves stress and provides emotional warmth to its members. \- Reproductive function: The role of the family in reproducing the next generation. \- Primary socialisation: The process by which children learn the norms and values of society from their family. \- Sexual function: Functionalist idea that the family regulates sexual behavior, ensuring social stability. \- Unit of consumption: The family as a unit that consumes products, driving economic activity. 2\. Marriage, Divorce, and Cohabitation \- Same-Sex Marriage Act: Legislation that legalized same-sex marriage in the UK. \- Confluent love: A form of love based on emotional intimacy and shared happiness, rather than obligation. \- Pure relationships: Relationships based on equality and individual fulfillment, according to Giddens. \- Cohabitation: Living together without being legally married. \- Empty shell marriages: Marriages where love has disappeared, but the couple stays together. \- Divorce Reform Act: Legislation that made divorce easier to obtain, focusing on \'irretrievable breakdown\' of marriage. \- Divorce rate: The frequency of divorces in a given population over a certain period. \- LATs (Living Apart Together): Couples in long-term relationships who do not live together. \- Divorce: The legal dissolution of a marriage. 3\. Demography \- Infant mortality: The number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births. \- Fertility rate: The average number of children a woman is expected to have during her lifetime. \- Life expectancy: The average number of years a person is expected to live based on current mortality rates. \- Net migration: The difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants in a population. \- Dependency ratio: The ratio of non-working (dependent) population to the working population. 4\. Childhood \- Social construction: The idea that childhood is a concept created by society, varying over time and cultures. \- Toxic childhood: A term coined by Sue Palmer to describe the negative impact of modern society on children\'s development. \- Disappearance of childhood: Postman's theory that childhood is eroding due to increased exposure to adult life via media and technology. \- Child-centered: A family or society where the needs and interests of children are prioritized. \- Age patriarchy: The domination of children by adults, limiting their independence and freedom. 5\. Gender Roles and Domestic Division of Labour \- Conjugal roles: The roles played by the husband and wife within the family. \- Symmetrical families: A family in which both partners share roles equally in terms of domestic work and decision-making (Young and Willmott). \- Triple shift: Women's responsibility for paid work, domestic labor, and emotional work. \- Dual burden: Women who are responsible for both paid work and housework. \- Expressive role: The nurturing and caring role typically associated with women (Parsons). \- Segregated conjugal roles: The division of labor in the family where the husband and wife perform different tasks. \- Domestic violence: Abuse that occurs within the family, often a result of patriarchal power dynamics. \- Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power in roles of leadership and moral authority. 6\. Social Policies and the Family \- Perverse incentives: Policies that unintentionally encourage undesirable behavior, such as welfare that may discourage work (New Right). \- Clare's Law: Legislation that allows individuals to ask the police if their partner poses a domestic violence risk. \- Universal Credit: A welfare benefit in the UK designed to simplify the system and incentivize work. \- Housing policies: Government policies related to housing that affect family structures and stability. \- Surveillance/panopticon: Foucault's concept of society monitoring individuals, including within the family. \- Feeling rules: Norms that govern how individuals should feel in certain situations, often reinforced within families. 7\. Family and Diversity \- Neo-conventional families: Families that still have traditional structures but may have evolved (Chester). \- Cultural diversity: The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within society, affecting family forms. \- Matrifocal families: Family structures centered around the mother, often seen in some Caribbean cultures. \- Families of choice: Family-like structures created by individuals through choice rather than biological ties, often seen in LGBTQ+ communities. \- Beanpole family: A multi-generational family with few members in each generation. \- Fictiv kin: Non-biological, close relationships that function like family. \- Patchwork families: A type of family diversity where members come together from different family units (blended families). \- Reconstituted families: Families formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships. \- Organisational diversity: The variety of family structures that exist in society, including single-parent, cohabiting, and blended families. \- Generational diversity: Differences in family structures, values, and roles across different age cohorts. \- Nuclear family: A traditional family structure consisting of two parents and their children. \- Cereal packet family: The stereotypical image of the nuclear family as portrayed in media and advertising. \- Heteronorm: The assumption that heterosexual relationships are the norm, marginalizing other forms of sexual relationships. \- Plastic sexuality: Giddens\' idea that sexuality is no longer tied to reproduction and has become more flexible in modern societies. \- Individualisation: A process where individuals are freer to make their own life choices, rather than being bound by traditional family roles. \- Symbolic refuge: The idea that the family provides a sense of security and identity amidst the uncertainties of modern life. \- Choice and diversity: The increase in personal choice in forming relationships and family structures in modern society. \- End of metanarratives: Postmodernist idea that grand, overarching theories (such as traditional family structures) no longer apply in a fragmented society. [Beliefs and Religion : ] 1\. The Secularisation Debate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2\. Theories and Beliefs - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3\. Religious Organisations - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4\. CAGE (Class, Age, Gender, Ethnicity) and Beliefs - - - - - - - - - - - - - Exam Questions -- Topics 2 -- Families and Households Item D Despite many changes in society, some feminist sociologists argue that gender roles and relationships within the family remain unequal. Women still take responsibility for housework and childcare, and men still dominate in terms of power and financial control. However, other sociologists argue that there is evidence that gender roles and relationships are becoming more equal. For example, men now take on a more domestic role. Q1) Applying material from Item D and your knowledge, evaluate the view that gender roles and relationships within the family are still unequal in society today. \[20 marks\] Item D Feminist sociologists emphasise the harmful effects of the conventional nuclear family on women. They see it as playing a role in the continuing oppression of women. This is evident in areas such as domestic violence, paid employment and power. Other sociologists reject this negative view of the family and argue that it is essential for society. Q2) Applying material from Item D and your knowledge, evaluate feminist explanations of the role of the family in society today. \[20 marks\] Q3) Outline and explain two ways in which women's involvement in paid work has affected family structures (10marks) Q4) Outline and explain two ways in which changing gender roles within the family may have affected children's experience of childhood (10marks) Item C Globalisation involves the growing interconnectedness between countries through increased travel opportunities. It enables more freedom of choice in terms of lifestyles and personal relationships. Globalisation may influence families and households. Q5) Applying material from Item C, analyse two ways in which globalisation may influence families and households. (10 marks) Item C Globalisation has increased the movement of people around the world. It has also led to wider access in the UK to technological developments. Globalisation may affect domestic labour in the UK. Q6) Applying material from Item C, analyse two ways that globalisation may affect domestic labour in the UK. \[10 marks\] Item C In the 1950's, most immigrants into the United Kingdom came from Commonwealth countries such as India and Jamaica. More recently, many immigrants have come from European Countries such as Poland. Many immigrants are young adults seeking work. These Migration patterns have affected household structures. Q7) Applying material from Item C, analyse two ways in which migration patterns have affected household structures in the United Kingdom. (10 marks) Exam Questions -- Topics 2 -- Beliefs in Society Item I Churches are generally seen as traditional and conservative in their beliefs. They also tend to have a strict hierarchy of power. The characteristics of churches are different from those of New Age movements. Q1) Applying material from Item I, analyse two ways in which the characteristics of churches are different from those of New Age movements. \[10 marks\] Q2) Outline and explain two reasons why sects tend to recruit members from particular social groups. (10 marks) Item J There are differences between women and men in levels of religious belief and participation in religious activities. Feminist sociologists focus on women&\#39;s subordination to men and see religion and religious organisations as playing a part in maintaining patriarchal society. However, despite this, women appear to be more religious than men. Q3) Applying material from Item J and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of the relationship between gender and religious beliefs and. practices. \[20 marks\] Q4) Outline and explain two reasons why women are more likely than men to participate in New Age movements. \[10 marks\] Item J There are different sociological explanations of the relationship between ethnicity and religious beliefs and practices. Some sociologists argue that religion plays an important part in the lives of many minority ethnic groups, providing a mechanism for cultural defence and cultural transition. However, other sociologists argue that there has been a decline in the importance of religion for most ethnic groups. Q5) Applying material from Item J and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of the relationship between ethnicity and religious beliefs and practices. \[20 marks\] Item I Minority ethnic groups often arrive in the United Kingdom with a different culture from that of the host society. Also, members of minority ethnic groups often face racism in their everyday lives. Q6) Applying material from Item I, analyse two reasons why minority ethnic groups in the United Kingdom are often more religious than the majority of the population. (10 marks) Q7) Outline and explain two reasons why women may be more religious than men. \[10 marks\] Exam Questions -- Topics 1 -- Families and Households Q1) Outline and explain two ways in which the functions of the family may have been affected by changes to its structure. \[10 marks\] Q2) Item C People have more choice than in the past over who they can be in a personal relationship with. They also have more choices when a relationship ends This increased choice in personal life has affected family structures today Applying material from Item C, analyse two effects that increased choice in personal life has on family structures in the UK today (10marks) Q3) Item D Marxist sociologists argue that families continue to perform a key role n maintaining capitalism. Families support the economy and play an important part in transmitting the ideology that helps to legitimise the capitalist system. However, some sociologists argue that Marxists place too much importance on the role of families in supporting capitalism and that families are beneficial to individuals and society as a whole. Applying material from Item D and your knowledge, evaluate Marxist explanations of the role of families in society today (20marks) Q4) Item D Feminist sociologists emphasis the harmful effects of the conventional nuclear family on women. They see it as playing a role in the continuing oppression of women. This is evident in areas such as domestic violence, paid employment and power. Applying material from Item D and your knowledge, evaluate feminist explanations of the role of the family in society today (20marks) Q5) Item D Functionalists believe the family has its own important role to play in helping society to function effectively. In each type of society, one particular type of family will be the norm. This family type will fit the needs both of its individual members and of society as a whole. Other sociologists believe that functionalists fail to consider ways in which families are dysfunctional. Applying material from Item D and your knowledge, evaluate functionalist explanations of the role of the family today. (20marks) Q6) Outline and explain two ways in which government policies may affect family structure (10marks). Q7) Item C In the UK, there has been an increase in divorce since the 1960s. There are also more same sex couples than in the past. Family diversity in the UK has been influenced by government policies. Applying material from Item C, analyse two ways in which family diversity in the UK has been influenced by government policies (10marks). Exam Questions -- Topics 1 -- Beliefs in Society Q1) Item I Religion gives people principles by which they can live their lives and gives them a profound sense of being right. Religious beliefs sometimes lead believers to act in ways that can have unforeseen consequences for society. Manty sociologists there argue that religion can lead to social change. Applying material from Item I, analyse two ways in which religion can lead to social change (10marks) - - Q2) Outline and explain two ways in which churches may act as conservative forces (10marks). Q3) Outline and explain two ways that globalisation may have influenced the way in which religion acts as a force for change (10marks). Q4) Item J Some sociologists argue that religion acts as a force for social change. It can be used to challenge mainstream beliefs and values, and inspire protest against the existing social order. However, other sociologists suggest that the relationship between religion and social change is not straight forward and that religion can even prevent social change. Applying material from Item J and your knowledge, evaluate the view that religion acts as a force for social change (20marks) Q5) Item J The development of modern society has been accompanied by a scientific approach to understanding and controlling the world. Scientific explanations, based on evidence and reason, have challenged religious explanations based on faith. However, religion continues to play an important role in many people's lives today. Applying material from Item J and your knowledge, evaluate the view that science has a greater influence than religion on people's lives today (20marks)