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Humanities: 12.3: Geographical concepts help you to make sense of your world. By using these concepts you can both investigate and understand the world you live in, and you can use them to try to imagine a different world. The concepts help you to think geographically. There are seven major concep...

Humanities: 12.3: Geographical concepts help you to make sense of your world. By using these concepts you can both investigate and understand the world you live in, and you can use them to try to imagine a different world. The concepts help you to think geographically. There are seven major concepts: space, place, interconnection, change, environment, sustainability and scale. 12.3.3 What is space? Everything has a location on the space that is the surface of the Earth, and studying the effects of location, the distribution of things across this space, and how the space is organised and managed by people, helps us to understand why the world is like it is. A place can be described by its absolute location (latitude and longitude) or its relative location (in what direction and how far it is from another place). 12.3.4 What is place? The world is made up of places, so to understand our world we need to understand its places by studying their variety, how they influence our lives and how we create and change them. You often have mental images and perceptions of places — rich and poor cities, suburbs, towns or neighbourhoods — and these may be very different from someone else’s perceptions of the same places. 12.3.5 What is interconnection? People and things are connected to other people and things in their own and other places, and understanding these connections helps us to understand how and why places are changing. An event in one location can lead to change in a place some distance away. 12.3.6 What is change? The concept of change is about using time to better understand a place, an environment, a spatial pattern or a geographical problem. Some changes can be fast and easily observed, but others are very slow. Cities, for example, can expand outwards over a number of years. Similarly, landforms generally change very slowly, as with the formation of mountains. But some landscape change can be very fast, as is the case with landslides, volcanic eruptions and deforestation. 12.3.7 What is environment? People live in and depend on the environment, so it has an important influence on our lives. The environment, defined as the physical and biological world around us, supports and enriches human and other life by providing raw materials and food, absorbing and recycling wastes, and being a source of enjoyment and inspiration to people. 12.3.8 What is sustainability? Sustainability is about maintaining the capacity of the environment to support our lives and those of other living creatures. Sustainability is about the interconnection between the human and natural world and who gets which resources and where, in relation to conservation of these resources and prevention of environmental damage. 12.3.9 What is scale? When we examine geographical questions at different spatial levels we are using the concept of scale to find more complete answers. Scale can be from personal and local to regional, national or global. Looking at things at a range of scales allows a deeper understanding of geographical issues. Ways to improve sustainability at the local scale include: reducing the ecological footprint protecting the natural environment increasing community wellbeing and pride in the local area changing behaviour patterns by providing better local options encouraging compact or dense living providing easy access to work, play and schools. Ways to improve sustainability at the city scale include: building strong central activities areas (either one major hub, or a number of specified activity areas)  reducing traffic congestion protecting natural systems avoiding suburban sprawl and reducing inefficient land use distributing infrastructure and transport networks equally and efficiently to provide accessible, cheap transportation options promoting inclusive planning and urban design providing better access to healthy lifestyles (e.g. cycle and walking paths) improving air quality and waste management using stormwater more efficiently increasing access to parks and green spaces reducing car dependency and increasing walkability promoting green space and recreational areas demonstrating a high mix of uses (e.g. commercial, residential and recreational). EXPLORING URBANISATION: - Emigration: The departure of people from their homeland (country of birth) to settle permanently in a new country - Immigration: The arrival of people into a new country to settle down permanently - Migration: The movement of people within a country to settle down permanently EMIGRATION+IMMIGRATION=MIGRATION - Urbanisation: Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people living in Towns and Cities. Urbanisation occurs because people move from rural areas to urban areas. - Uneven Urbanisation: Uneven urbanisation is when city growth and development are not evenly distributed. Some areas experience rapid urban expansion with many services and infrastructure, while others remain less developed and lag behind. - Coastal Urbanisation: Coastal urbanisation refers to the process of cities and towns expanding and developing along coastlines. In simple terms:**Coastal urbanisation** is when urban areas grow along the shores of oceans, seas, or large lakes. It involves building and developing infrastructure like homes, businesses, and transport systems near the coast. This often happens because people are drawn to coastal areas for their scenic views, economic opportunities, and recreational activities.  - Ecological footprint: An ecological footprint is a measure of how much we use Earth's resources and how much waste we create. It shows the impact of our lifestyle on the environment. Effects of Urbanization: The causes of urbanisation are similar for both Australia and the United States. In each case, since the country was founded: fewer people were needed to work in rural areas as technology reduced the demand for labour on farms more jobs and opportunities were available in factories, which were located in urban areas the development of railways allowed goods produced in one city to be transported to rural and urban areas cities could grow and develop thanks to new technologies (steel-framed skyscrapers) and utilities (for example, electricity and water supply). What do you think is the main cause of urbanisation in Australia and the USA? Some bad factors of Urbanisation include: Homelessness, Conurbations, Health issues, Pollution. Conurbations Sometimes there are so many cities in a particular region that they seem to merge almost into one city as they expand. A conurbation is made up of cities that have grown and merged to form one continuous urban area. Both the United States and, to a lesser extent, Australia have conurbations. Push and pull factors are reasons that drive people to leave one place and move to another. - **Push Factors:** These are negative aspects of a location that drive people away. For example, lack of job opportunities, poor living conditions, or political instability can push people to leave their current home. - **Pull Factors:** These are positive aspects of a different location that attract people to move there. For example, better job prospects, higher quality of life, or safer living conditions can pull people toward a new place. In summary, push factors make people want to leave, while pull factors make them want to move to a new place. - Gateway cities: Gateway cities are cities in the world that are arrival points for many migrant workers  - Slum: A slum is a crowded urban area with poor living conditions, including inadequate housing and limited access to basic services. Internal migration is the movement of people from one defined area to another within a country. For example, a family moving from Melbourne to live in Perth is classified as internal migration as it occurs within Australia. Economic Migration: Economic migration is a type of internal migration where individuals or families move to a new location primarily for better employment opportunities and economic benefits. This can include higher wages, more job availability, or prospects for career advancement. Lifestyle Migration: Lifestyle migration is the movement of people who relocate in pursuit of a better quality of life. This can include moving to areas with a more favourable climate, scenic beauty, lower cost of living, or a slower pace of life. Lifestyle migration is often motivated by personal and family preferences rather than economic necessity. 19.2 Urban areas and their effects on people 19.2.1 Why people move to urban areas There are many and varied reasons for people migrating to urban locations. These reasons are usually a combination of push and pull factors. Some people are ‘pushed’ from rural to urban areas within their own country. Others will travel from other countries to urban areas, ‘pulled’ by better opportunities. Push factors Geographical inequality is mostly responsible for the migration of people from rural to urban areas. Push factors that drive people towards cities usually involve a decline in living conditions in the rural area in which the people live. There are various situations that can cause this, including a decrease in the quality of agricultural land (caused by factors such as prolonged drought, erosion or desertification); poverty; lack of medical services or educational opportunities; war; famine from lack of food and/or crop failure; and natural disasters. Pull factors Pull factors refer to the attractions of urban areas that make people want to move there. Urbanisation in any country generally begins when enough businesses are established in the cities to provide many new jobs. Pull factors include job opportunities; better housing and infrastructure; political or religious freedom; improved education and healthcare; activities and enjoyment of public facilities; and family links. 19.2.3 Which cities attract workers? Taxi drivers, construction workers, teachers, nurses, house cleaners, accountants, nannies — there are many job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled workers that attract people to cities. These people may come from a different area within a country or across borders from different countries. ‘Gateway cities’ are cities in the world that are arrival points for many migrant workers. These cities are large enough to provide many different jobs and are therefore attractive to people moving from other regions. Some cities, such as Dubai, are reliant on their foreign workers. More than two-thirds of Dubai’s population is migrant labour, with many working in building construction. These labourers — mostly from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh — are often poorly paid, and live in migrant camps that can be up to two hours away from the work site. FIGURE 5 shows the cities with the highest foreign-born population that attract foreign workers. 19.2.5 Regional differences During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, urbanisation occurred because of migration and the growth of industries. New job opportunities in the cities attracted people from rural areas and migrants provided a cheap workforce for factories. At that time, death rates in cities were high because they were unhealthy places (with crowded living conditions, diseases and a lack of sanitation) and urban growth was slow. Workers often found it hard to find somewhere to live — it was not unusual for an entire family to be living in a single room. In many European cities (such as London) the number of deaths was higher than the number of births, and migrants provided most of the population growth. It is a very different experience in developing countries today. Most urban growth results from natural increase; that is, people being born in cities, rather than migrating to cities. With the additional population increase caused by migration from rural areas in search of better jobs, many cities in Asia and Africa have exploded in size. Cities can be great places and should not be viewed negatively. For example, people can more easily access basic services in urban areas than in rural areas so, although poverty may be present in urban environments, cities also offer an escape from poverty. Cultural activities are often enhanced in cities that attract migrants from many different areas — food and music are obvious examples. There also tends to be a greater tolerance of different migrant and racial groups living close together. 19.2.6 How urban areas affect people’s ways of life Both small and large urban areas can provide people with positive and negative experiences. Cities attract people to them with the opportunity of work and the possibility of better housing, education and health services. There is a strong interconnection between the wealth of a country and how urbanised it is. Generally, countries with a high per capita income tend to be more urbanised, while low-income countries are the least urbanised. This happens because people grouped together create many chances to move out of poverty, generally because of increased work opportunities. There are often better support networks from governments and local councils. It is also cheaper to provide facilities such as housing, roads, public transport, hospitals and schools to a population concentrated into a smaller area. 19.2.7 Urban challenges Rapid population growth in urban areas can result in problems such as poverty, unemployment, inadequate shelter, poor sanitation, dirty or depleted water supplies, air pollution, road congestion and overcrowded public transport. Slums In many developing countries, urban growth has resulted in unplanned settlements called slums (other terms used around the world include ghettos, favelas, shantytowns, bidonvilles and bustees). Almost 1 billion people live in slums worldwide. Transport and pollution In cities that can’t keep up with rapid population growth, traffic congestion and overcrowded public transport mean that many people must travel for hours to get to and from work. Pollution is also a problem that affects the health of people living in cities. Many cities have high levels of air pollution and some — including Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Beijing and Los Angeles — are famous for being so polluted. According to the World Health Organization in 2016, 12 of the world’s 25 cities with the worst air pollution were in India. Most of the pollution comes from the growing industrial sector and vehicle emissions. 18.6 Effects of international migration on Australia 18.6.1 Why have people migrated to Australia? Australia is a land of migrants. In a way all non-Indigenous Australian people are migrants — at some stage in the past, our ancestors came to this country to live. In 2016, nearly half of Australia’s population was born overseas or had at least one parent who was born overseas. Since the earliest times, people have moved from one part of the world to another in search of places to live. Migrants have come to Australia for many reasons: Jobs, High standards of living, Political stability, social services, good human rights record, good education and health facilities, democracy, clean environment, family reunions. 18.6.3 Effects of international migration Social effects Migration has helped increase Australia’s population. The increase in population from only seven million at the end of World War II to more than triple that now is caused by both the arrival of migrants and increased birth rates since then (see FIGURE 5). Migrants to Australia have contributed to our society, culture and prosperity. Many communities hold festivals and cultural events where we can all share and enjoy the foods, languages, music, customs, art and dance. Australian society is made up of people from many different backgrounds and origins. We have come from more than 200 countries to live here. Therefore, we are a very multicultural society — one which needs to respect and support each other’s differences, and the rights of everyone to have their own culture, language and religion. Economic effects An increased population also means a greater demand for goods and services, which stimulates the economy. Migrants need food, housing, education and health services, and their taxes and spending allows businesses to expand. Apart from labour and capital (money), migrants also bring many skills to Australia Migrants generate more in taxes than they consume in benefits and government goods and services. As a result, migrants as a whole contribute more financially than they take from society. Environmental effects In the past, people argued that immigrants put pressures on Australia’s environment and resources by increasing our population and the need for water, energy and other requirements. However, today many people believe that Australia’s environmental problems are not caused by migration and population increase, but by inadequate planning and management. 18.6.4 The future Since 1995, the Australian government has been working to encourage new migrants to settle in regional and rural Australia. The Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme (RSMS) allows employers in areas of Australia that are regional, remote or have low population growth to sponsor employees to work with them in those regions (see FIGURE 7). This takes the pressure off large cities and also provides regional employers with skilled workers. As we have seen, it has always been the case that most immigrants settle first in our cities, especially the state capitals. In 2017–18, 101 255 migrants arrived in Australia and of these, 6637 settled in regional Australia. There are many regional locations that want to attract migrants. 20.3.1 The urban explosion In 2008, for the first time in history, the world’s urban population outnumbered its rural population. In 2019, the world's population exceeded 7.7 billion; it is expected to reach 9.2 billion by 2050. Where will all these people live? What challenges will cities and communities face in trying to ensure a decent standard of living for all of us? Global population growth will be concentrated mainly in urban areas of developing countries. It is forecast that by 2030, 3.9 billion people will be living in cities of the developing world. The impact of expanding urban populations will vary from country to country and could prove a great challenge if a country is not able to produce or import sufficient food. Hunger and starvation may increase the risk of social unrest and conflict. On the other hand, farmers can help satisfy the food needs of expanding urban populations and provide an economic livelihood for people in the surrounding region. One of the biggest challenges we face is ensuring that the sustainability of our economy, communities and environment is compatible with Australia’s growing urban population (see TABLE 1). 20.3.2 The future for Australia Australia’s population will continue to grow and change. In particular, it will become more urban and its composition will age. Population increase threatens our fragile Australian environment. We continue to witness loss of biodiversity, limits on water supply, more greenhouse gas emissions and threats to food security. Our cities experience more traffic congestion and there are problems with housing availability and affordability. Access to services, infrastructure and green space are limited for some people in our communities. To handle these many challenges, we must plan effectively for an increased population by building communities that can accommodate future changes. This will build communities in which all Australians live and prosper. 20.3.3 The rural lifestyle Approximately 93 per cent of Australia’s growing population will be living in urban areas by 2050 (see TABLE 1). However, some urban residents will make a ‘tree change’ or a ‘sea change’ and relocate to rural areas or the coast. The population in rural communities is generally stable or decreasing, as many young people leave in search of jobs and study opportunities. Some rural communities manage to keep their populations stable by shifting their employment focus from manufacturing to services; by utilising better internet connections, to allow people to work remotely from their office; or by improving public transport links. 20.5 Managing our suburbs 20.5.1 Living on the edge There is much at stake on the rural–urban fringe, with the conflict between farming and urban residential development reaching a critical point on the outskirts of Australia’s cities. Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth, and just six per cent of its total area (45 million hectares) is arable land. The areas targeted by our state governments for residential development continue to expand. When some of our most fertile farmland is lost to urban sprawl (urban sprawl the spreading of urban areas into surrounding rural areas to accommodate an expanding population), we reduce our productive capacity. Is this a recipe for sustainability? On the edge of many Australian cities, new homes are being built as part of planned developments on greenfield sites. These were previously green wedges, wildlife habitats and productive farmland on the urban fringe. Accompanying these housing developments are plans for kindergartens, schools, parks, pools, cafés and shopping centres (often called amenities and facilities). Having an ‘affordable lifestyle’ is the main attraction for people who purchase these brand new homes. They like the idea of joining a community and having the feeling of safety in their newly established neighbourhood. Most new houses on the rural–urban fringe are bought by young first-home buyers, attracted by cheaper housing and greener surroundings. Generally, the residents of these fringe households feel that the benefits of their location outweigh the poor public transport provisions and long journeys to work and activities — trips that are usually made in a car. 20.5.2 Feeding our growing cities Market gardens have traditionally provided much of a growing city’s food needs, supplying produce to central fruit and vegetable markets. These ‘urban farms’ were located on fertile land within a city’s boundaries but close to its edge, with a water source nearby and often on floodplains. They have been in existence in and around Australia’s major cities since the 1800s, and some (such as Burnley Gardens in Richmond, Victoria) are now listed on the National Trust heritage garden register. Fifty per cent of Victoria’s fresh vegetable production still occurs in and around Melbourne, on farms such as those at Werribee and Bacchus Marsh. More than 60 per cent of Sydney’s fresh produce is grown close to the city, with the bulk of it coming from commercial gardens such as those in Bilpin, Marsden Park and Liverpool. These farms are important because: they provide us with nutritious food that does not have to be transported very far they provide local employment they preserve a mix of different land uses in and around our cities. Currently, we can obtain our food from almost anywhere because we have modern transportation (such as trucks and planes), better storage technology (refrigeration and ripening techniques) and cheap sources (not necessarily the closest). However, this fails to recognise that Australia’s population may double by 2050 and food will become more scarce on a global level. The eradication of our local food providers may be at our own peril. Land use zoning is generally the responsibility of state planning departments but cooperation is required by all three levels of government: local, state and federal. We need to ensure that our green wedges are protected from becoming development corridors. The needs on both sides of the argument are valid. How can we house a growing population and provide enough food for them? Can we do both?