Untitled document (2).pdf

SECTION 1 Essential Questions ○ What is a substance? ○ How does ozone form and why is it important? ○ What are chlorofluorocarbons and how do they get into the atmosphere? Review Vocabulary matter: anything that has mass and takes up space New Vocabulary chemistry sub...

SECTION 1 Essential Questions ○ What is a substance? ○ How does ozone form and why is it important? ○ What are chlorofluorocarbons and how do they get into the atmosphere? Review Vocabulary matter: anything that has mass and takes up space New Vocabulary chemistry substance A Story of Two Substances MAINIDEA Chemistry is the study of everything around us. CHEM Have you ever moved a piece of furniture to a new location, 4 YOU only to discover that the new location won't work? Sometimes, moving furniture creates a new problem, such as a door will not open all the way or an electric cord will not reach an outlet. Solving a problem only to find that the solution creates a new problem also occurs in science. Why study chemistry? Take a moment to observe your surroundings and Figure 1. Where did all the "stuff" come from? All the stuff in the universe, including everything in the photos, is made from building blocks formed in stars. Scientists call these building blocks and the "stuff" made from these building blocks matter, As you begin your study of chemistry_-the study of matter and the changes that it undergoes- you are probably asking yourself, "Why is chemistry important to me?" The answer to this question can be illustrated by real-life events that involve two discoveries. One discovery involves something that you probably use every day- refrigeration. If you go to school in an air-conditioned building or if you protect your food from spoilage by using a refrigerator, this discovery is important to you. The other discovery involves energy from the Sun. Because vou eat food and spend time outdoors, this discovery is also important to you. These two seemingly unrelated discoveries became intertwined in an unexpected way--as you will soon learn. Figure 1 Everything in the universe, including particles in space and thias around you, is composed of matter. Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry Satellite Exosphere 500 Km _ Space shuttle Meteortrails Thermosphere 85 km 50 km Ozone laver Figure 2 Earth's atmosphere consists of several layers. The protective ozone laver is located in the stratosphere. Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere The Ozone Laver IF vou have ever had a sunburn, you have experienced the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Overexposure to ultraviolet radiation is harmful to both plants and animals Increased levels of a type of ultraviolet radiation called UVB can cause cataracts and skin cancer in humans, lower crop vields in agriculture, and disrupted food chains in nature. Living organisms have evolved in the presence of UVB, and cells have some ability to repair themselves when exposed to low levels of UVB. However, some scientists believe that when UVB levels reach a certain point, the cells of living organisms will no longer be able to cope, and many organisms will die. Earth's atmosphere Living organisms on Earth exist because they are protected from high levels of UVB by ozone. Qzone, which is made up of oxygen, is a substance in the atmosphere that absorbs most harmful radiation before it reaches Earth's surface. A substance, which is also known as a chemical, is matter that has a definite and uniform composition. About 90% of Earth's ozone is spread out in a laver that surrounds and protects our planet. As you can see in Figure 2, Earth's atmosphere consists of several lavers. The lowest laver is called the troposphere and contains the air we breathe. The troposphere is where clouds occur and where airplanes fly. All of Earths weather occurs in the troposphere. The stratosphere is the laver above the troposphere. It extends from about 10 to 50 kilometers (km) above Earth's surface. The ozone laver that protects Earth is located in the stratosphere wIREADING CHECK Exnlain the benefits of ozone in the atmosphere. RealWorld CHEMISTRY The Ozone Layer SUNSCREEN To offer some protection from harmful UV radiation, sunscreen can be applied to the skin. Sunscreen helps prevent sunburn and skin cancer. Health professionals recommend the use of sunscreen anytime that you are outdoors and exposed to the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. VocaBUlary WorD OrIGIN Ozone comes from the Greek word ozon, which means to smell Section 1 A Story of Two Substances Figure 3 Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes some oxygen gas (02) to break into individual particles of oxygen (0). These individual particles combine with oxygen gas (02) to form ozone (03). Explain why there is a balance between oxygen gas and ozone levels in the stratosphere. Ultraviole radiation Ozone Oxygen gas Formation of ozone Ozone formation How does ozone enter the stratosphere? When oxygen gas (Oz) is exposed to ultraviolet radiation in the upper regions of the stratosphere, ozone (Os) is formed[ Molecules of oxygen gas are made of two smaller oxygen particles. The energy of the radiation breaks the oxygen gas into individual oxygen particles (O), which then interact with Oz to form O3. Figure 3 illustrates this process. Ozone can also absorb radiation and break apart to reform oxygen gas. Thus, there tends to be a balance between oxygen gas and ozone levels in the stratosphere. Ozone was first identified and measured in the late 1800s, so its presence has been studied for a long time. It was of interest to scientists because air currents in the stratosphere move ozone around Earth. Ozone forms over the equator, where the rays of sunlight are the strongest, and then flows toward the poles. Thus, ozone makes a convenient marker to follow the flow of air in the stratosphere. In the 1920s, British scientist G.M.B. Dobson (1889-1976) began measuring the amount of ozone in the atmosphere. Although ozone is formed in the higher regions of the stratosphere, most of it is stored in the lower stratosphere. Ozone can be measured in the lower strato- sphere by instruments on the ground or in balloons, satellites, and. rockets. Dobson's measurements helped scientists determine the normal amount of ozone that should be in the stratosphere. Three hundred Dobson units (DU) is considered the normal amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Instruments, like those shown in Figure 4, monitor the amount of ozone present in the stratosphere today. Figure 4 Scientists use a variety of equipment, including this Brewer spectrometer, to take ozone 6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry 525 325 125 Between 1981 and 1983, a research group from the British Antarctic Survey was monitoring the atmosphere above Antarctica. They measured surprisingly low levels of ozone-readings as low as 160 DU-especially during the Antarctic spring in October. They checked their instruments and repeated their measurements. In October 1985, they reported a confirmed decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere and concluded that the ozone layer was thinning. Figure 5 shows how the thinning ozone layer looked in October 1990. Although the thinning of the ozone layer is often called the ozone hole, it is not a hole. The ozone is still present in the atmosphere. However, the protective layer is much thinner than normal. This fact has alarmed scientists, who never expected to find such low levels. Measurements made from balloons, high-altitude planes, and satellites have supported the measurements made from the ground. What could be causing the ozone hole? Chlorofluorocarbons The story of the second substance in this chapter begins in the 1920s. Large-scale production of refrigerators, which at first used toxic gases such as ammonia as coolants, was just beginning. Because ammonia fumes could escape from the refrigerator and harm the members of a household, chemists began to search for safer coolants. Thomas Midgley, Ir. synthesized the first chlorofluorocarbons in 1928. A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is a substance that consists of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. Several different substances are classified as CFCs. They are all made in the laboratory and do not occur naturally. CFCs are nontoxic and stable- they do not readily react with other substances. At the time, they seemed to be ideal coolants for retrigerators. By 1933, the first self-contained home air-conditioning units and eight million new refrigerators in the United States used CFCs as coolants. In addition to their use as refrigerants, CFCs were also used in plastic foams, solvents, and as propellants in spray cans. L READING CHECK Explain why scientists thought CFCs were safe for the environment. Figure 5 Satellite photos confirmed the British Antarctic Survey team's measurements that the ozone layer was thinning over Antarctica. On this satellite map, the area over Antarctica appears pink, purple, and black. The color-key on the right indicates that the ozone level ranges from 125 to about 200 Dobson Units, which is well below the normal level of 300 Dobson units. CAREERS IN CHEMISTRY Environmental Chemist An environmental chemist uses tools from chemistry and other sciences to study how chemicals interact with the physical and biological environ-ment. This includes identifying the sources of pollutants such as ozone and their effects on living organisms WebQue: Section 1 A Story of Two Substances Figure 6 Scientists collected data on the global use of CFCs and the accumulation of CFCs over Antarctica. CFC-11 is one particular type of CFC. In the graph, the concentration of CFC-11 in the atmosphere is shown in parts per trillion (ppt). Concentration of CFC-11 in the Atmosphere CFC-11 (ppt) 260 220 20 180 160 140 M GRAPH CHECK Describe the trend in the data from 1979 through 2010. 1982 1979 1986 1998 Year Scientists first began to detect the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere in the 1970s. They decided to measure the amount of CFCs in the stratosphere and found that quantities in the stratosphere increased vear after year. By 1990, the concentration of CFCs had reached an all-time high, as shown in Figure 6. However, it was widely thought that CFCs did not pose a threat to the environment because they are so stable, and consequently many scientists were not alarmed. Scientists had noticed and measured two separate phenomena: the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere was thinning, and increasingly large quantities of CFCs were drifting into the atmosphere. Could there be a connection between the two occurrences? Before you learn the answer to this question, you need to understand some of the basic ideas of chemistry and know how chemists--and most scientists--solve scientific problems. SECTION 1 REVIEW Section Summary ○ Chemistry is the study of matter. ○ Chemicals are also known as substances. ○ Ozone is a substance that forms a protective layer in Earth's atmosphere.  ○ CFCs are synthetic substances made of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon that were originally thought to be the ideal coolants for refrigeration. 8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry Section Self-Check 1. MAINIDEA Explain why the study of chemistry should be important to everyone, 2. Define substance and give two examples of things that are substances. 3. Describe how the ozone layer forms and why it is important. 4. Explain why chlorofluorocarbons were developed and how they were used. 5. Explain If cells have the ability to repair themselves after exposure to UVB. why do the increasing levels of UVB in the atmosphere concern scientists? 6. Explain why the concentration of CFCs increased in the atmosphere. 7. Evaluate why it was important for Dobson's data to be confirmed by satellite photos. SECTION 2 Essential Questions ○ How do mass and weight compare and contrast? ○ Why are chemists interested in a submicroscopic description of matter? ○ What defines the various branches of chemistry? Review Vocabulary technology: a practical application of scientific information New Vocabulary weight model Figure 7 Everything in this photo is matter and has mass and weight. Compare and contrast mass and weight. Chemistry and Matter MAINIDEA Branches of chemistry involve the study of different kinds of matter. CHEM Chemistry is sometimes called the central science. Research and 4 YOU technology, such as greener energy and cures for disease, rely on chemistry. Even when you brush your teeth or digest your breakfast, important chemical processes are at work. Matter and its Characteristics Matter. the stuff of the universe, has many different forms. Everything around you, like the things in Figure 7, is matter. Some matter occurs naturally, such as ozone, and other substances are not natural, such as CFCs, which you read about in Section I. You might realize that everyday objects are composed of matter, but how do you define matter? Recall that matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Also recall that mass is a measurement that reflects the amount of matter. You know that your textbook has mass and takes up space, but is air matter? You cannot see it and you cannot always feel it. However, when vou inflate a balloon, it expands to make room for the air. The balloon gets heavier. Thus, air must be matter. Is everything matter? The thoughts and ideas that fill vour head are not matter; neither are heat, light, radio waves, nor magnetic fields. What else can you name that is not matter? Mass and weight Have you ever used a bathroom scale to measure your weight? Weight is a measure not only of the amount of matter but also of the effect of Earth's gravitational pull on that matter. This force is not exactly the same everywhere on Earth and actually becomes less as you move away from Earth's surface at sea level. You might not notice a difference in vour weight from one place to another, but subtle differences do exist. Section 2 Office building model Figure 8 Scientists use models to visualize complex ideas, such as the materials and structure used to build office buildings. They also use models to test a concept, such as a new airplane design, before it is mass produced. Infer why chemists use models to study atoms. FOLDABLES Incorporate information from this section into your Foldable. VocaBULary ScIeNce Usage v. Common usage Weight Science usage: the measure of the amount of matter in and the gravitational force exerted on an obiect The weight of an object is the product of its mass and the local acceleration of gravity. Common usage: the relative heaviness of an object The puppy grew so quickly it doubled its weight in a matter of weeks..... 10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry Airplane model It might seem more convenient for scientists to simply use weight instead of mass. Why is it so important to think of matter in terms of mass? Scientists need to be able to compare the measurements that they make in different parts of the world. They could identify the gravitational force every time they weigh something, but that would not be practical or convenient. They use mass as a way to measure matter independently of gravitational force. Structure and observable characteristics What can you observe about the outside of your school building? You know that there is more to the building than what you can observe from the outside. Among other things, there are beams inside the walls that give the building structure, stability, and function. Consider another example, When you bend your arm at the elbow, you observe that your arm moves, but what you cannot see is that muscles under the skin contract and relax to move your arm. Much of matter and its behavior is macroscopic; that is, vou do not need a microscope to observe it. You will learn in Chapter 3 that the tremendous variety of stuff around you can be broken down into more than a hundred types of matter called elements, and that elements are made up of particles called atoms. Atoms are so tiny that they cannot be seen even with optical microscopes. Thus, atoms are submicroscopic. They are so small that over a trillion atoms could fit onto the period at the end of this sentence. The structure, composition, and behavior of all matter can be explained on a submicroscopic level-or the atomic level. All that we observe about matter depends on atoms and the changes they undergo. Chemistry seeks to explain the submicroscopic events that lead to macroscopic observations. One way this can be done is by making a model. A model is a visual, verbal, or mathematical explanation of experimental data. Scientists use many types of models to represent things that are hard to visualize, such as the structure and materials used in the construction of a building and the computer model of the airplane shown in Figure 8. Chemists also use several different types of models to represent matter, as you will soon learn. I READING CHECK Identify two additional types of models that are used by scientists. Explore the branches of chemistry with an interactive table. Concepts In Motion Table 1 Some Branches of Chemistry Branch Area of Emphasis Organic chemistry most carbon-containing chemicals in general, matter that does not contain carbon Inorganic chemistry Physical chemistry the behavior and changes of matter and the related energy changes Analytical chemistry components and composition of substances Biochemistry matter and processes of living organisms Environmental chemistry matter and the environment Industrial chemistry chemical processes in industry Polymer chemistry polymers and plastics Theoretical chemistry chemical interactions Thermochemistry heat involved in chemical processes Chemistry: The Central Science Recall from Section I that chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that it undergoes. A basic understanding of chemistry is central to all sciences-biology, physics, Earth science, ecology, and others... Because there are so many types of matter, there are many areas of study in the field of chemistry. Chemistry is traditionally broken down into branches that focus on specific areas, such as those listed in Table 1. Although chemistry is divided into specific areas of study, many of the areas overlap. For example, as you can see from Table 1, an organic chemist might study plastics, but an industrial chemist or a polymer chemist could also focus on plastics. SECTION 2 REVIEW Examples of Emphasis pharmaceuticals, plastics minerals, metals and nonmetals, semiconductors reaction rates, reaction mechanisms food nutrients, quality control metabolism, fermentation pollution, biochemical cycles paints, coatings textiles, coatings, plastics many areas of emphasis heat of reaction Get help with mass and weight relationships. ersonal Tutor Sectinn Salt.Check Section Summary ○ Models are tools that scientists, including chemists, use. ○ Macroscopic observations of matter reflect the actions of atoms on a submicroscopic scale. ○ There are several branches of chemistry, including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analvtical chemistry, and biochemistry 1. MAINIDEA Explain why there are different branches of chemistry. 2. Explain why scientists use mass instead of weight for their measurements. 3. Summarize why it is important for chemists to study changes in the world at a submicroscopic level. 4. Infer why chemists use models to study submicroscopic matter. 5. Identify three models that scientists use, and explain why each model is useful. 6. Evaluate How would your mass and weight differ on the Moon? The gravitational force of the Moon is one-sixth the gravitational force on Earth. 7. Evaluate If you put a scale in an elevator and weigh yourself as you ascend and then descend, does the scale have the same reading in both instances? Explain your answer, Section 2 Che richt SECTION 3 Scientific Methods Essential Questions MAINIDEA Scientists use scientific methods to systematically pose and test solutions to questions and assess the results of the tests. ○  hat are the common steps of scientific methods? W ○ What are the similarities and differences between qualitative data and quantitative data? ○ in an experiment, which variable is the independent variable, which is CHEM When packing for a long trip, how do you start? Do you throw 4 YOU all of your clothes into a suitcase, or do you plan what you are going to wear? Usually, it is most effective to make a plan. Similarly, scientists develop and follow a plan that helps them investigate the world. the dependent variable, and which are controls? What is the difference between a theory and a scientific law? Review Vocabulary systematic approach: an organized method of solving a problem New Vocabulary scientific method qualitative data quantitative data hypothesis experiment independent variable dependent variable control conclusion theory scientific law A Systematic Approach You might have worked with a group on an experiment in the laboratory in a previous science course. If so, you know that each person in the group probably has a different idea about how to do the lab. Having many different ideas about how to do the lab is one of the benefits of many people working together. However, communicating ideas effectively to one another and combining individual contributions to form a solution can be difficult in group work. Scientists approach their work in a similar way. Each scientist tries to understand his or her world based on a personal point of view and individual creativity. Often, the work of many scientists is combined in order to gain new insight. It is helpful if all scientists use common procedures as they conduct their experiments. A scientific method is a systematic approach used in scientific study, whether it is chemistry, biology, physics, or another science. It is. an organized process used by scientists to do research, and it provides a method for scientists to verify the work of others. An overview of the typical steps of a scientific method is shown in Figure 9. The steps are not meant to be used as a checklist, or to be done in the same order each time. Therefore, scientists must describe their methods when they report their results. If other scientists cannot confirm the results after repeating the method, then doubt arises over the validity of the results. ○ Figure 9 The steps in a scientific method are repeated until a hypothesis is supported or discarded. OBSERVATIONS ○ Existing knowledge ○ Oualitative data ○ Quantitative data HYPOTHESIS Testable statement or prediction OSS hYPOTHESIS REVISED THEORY THEORY Hvpothesis supported by many experiments SCIENTIFIC LAW Summary of accepted facts of nature 12 Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry MiniLAB Develop Observation Skills Why are observation skills important in chemistry? Observations are often used to make inferences. An inference is an explanation or interpretation of observations. Procedure CUTEL 1. Read and complete the lab safety form. 2. Add water to a petri dish to a height of 0.5 cm. Use a graduated cylinder to measure 1 mL of vegetable oil, then add it to the petri dish. 3. Dip the end of a toothpick into liquid dishwashing detergent. 4. Touch the tip of the toothpick to the water at the center of the petri dish. Record your detailed observations Observation You make observations throughout our day in order to make decisions. Scientific study usually begins with simple obser vation. An observation is the act of gathering information. Often, the types of observations scientists make first are qualitative data information that describes color, odor, shape, or some other physical characteristic. In general, anything that relates to the five senses is qualitative: how something looks, feels, sounds, tastes, or smells. Chemists frequentlv gather another type of data. For example, they can measure temperature, pressure, volume, the quantity of a chemical formed, or how much of a chemical is used up in a reac tion. This numerical information is called quantitative data. It tells how much, how little, how big, how tall, or how fast. What kind of qualitative and quantitative data can you gather from Figure 10? Hypothesis Recall the stories of the two substances that you read about in Section 1. Even before quantitative data showed that ozone levels were decreasing in the stratosphere, scientists observed CFCs there. Chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland were curious about how long CFCs could exist in the atmosphere. Molina and Rowland examined the interactions that can occur among various chemicals in the troposphere. They determined that CFCs were stable there for long periods of time, but they also knew that CFCs drift upward into the stratosphere. They formed a hypothesis that CFCs break down in the stratosphere due to interactions with ultraviolet light from the Sun. In addition, the calculations they made led them to hypothesize that chlorine produced by this interaction would break down ozone. A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement or prediction about what has been observed. Molina and Rowland's hypothesis stated what they believed to be happening, even though there was no formal evidence at that point to support the statement. © READING CHECK Infer why a hypothesis is tentative. 1. Add whole milk to a second petri dish to a height of 0.5 cm. 2. Place one drop each of four different food colorings in four different locations on the surface of the milk. Do not put a drop of food coloring in the center. 3. Repeat Steps 3 and 4. Analysis 1. Describe what you observed in Step 4. 2. Describe what you observed in Step 7. 3. Infer Oil, the fat in milk, and grease belong to a class of substances called lipids. What can you infer about the addition of detergent to dishwater? 4. Explain why observations skills were important in this chemistry lab. Figure 10 Quantitative data are numerical information. Qualitative data are observations made by using the human senses. Identify the quantitative and qualitative data in the photo 90 80 60 50 400 Section) CROCALA Figure 11 These materials can be used to determine the effect of temperature on the rate at which table salt dissolves. Figure 12 Because the acidity of the solutions in these test tubes is known, these solutions can be used as controls in an experiment. Infer If the same chemical indicator were added to a solution of unknown acidity, how could you determine if it was acidic, neutral or basic? Chanter Experiments A hypothesis is meaningless unless there are data to support it. Thus, forming a hypothesis helps the scientist focus on the next step in a scientific method--the experiment. An experiment is a set of controlled observations that test the hypothesis. The scientist must carefully plan and set up one or more laboratory experiments in order to change and test one variable at a time. A variable is a quantity or condition that can have more than one value. Suppose your chemistry teacher asks your class to use the materials shown in Figure 11 to design an experiment to test the hypothesis that table salt dissolves faster in hot water than in water at room temperature (20°C). Because temperature is the variable that you plan to change, it is the independent variable. Your group determines that a given quantity of salt completely dissolves within I min at 40°C, but that the same quantity of salt dissolves after 3 min at 20°C. Thus, temperature affects the rate at which the salt dissolves. This rate is called the dependent variable because its value changes in response to a change in the independent variable. Although your group can determine the way in which the independent variable changes, it has no control over the way the dependent variable changes. © READING CHECK Explain the difference between a dependent and an independent variable. Other factors What other factors could you vary in your experiment? Would the amount of salt you try to dissolve make a difference? The amount of water you use? Would stirring the mixture affect your results? The answer to all of these questions might be yes. You must plan your experiment so that these variables are the same at each tempera-ture, or you will not be able to tell clearly what caused your results. In a well-planned experiment. the independent variable should be the only condition that affects the experiment's outcome. A constant is a factor. that is notallowed to change during the experiment. The amount of salt, water, and stirring must be constant at each temperature. In many experiments, it is valuable to have a control, that is, a standard for comparison. In the above experiment, the room-tempera-ture water is the control. Figure 12 shows a different type of control. A chemical indicator has been added to each of three test tubes. An acidic solution is in the test tube on the left, and the indicator turns red. The test tube in the middle contains water, and the indicator is yellow. The test tube on the right contains a basic solution, and the indicator turns blue. Ultraviolet radiation CCIF Molina and Rowland's model predicted that ultraviolet radiation causes chlorine (CI) to split off from a CFC (CCI.F). cio The chlorine then destroys the ozone by combining with it to form oxygen gas (0)) and chlorine monoxide (CIO). Figure 13 Molina and Rowland's model showed how CFCs could destroy ozone. Controlling variables The interactions described between CFCs and ozone in Molina and Rowland's hypothesis take place high over-head. Many variables are involved. For example, there are several gases present in the stratosphere. Thus, it would be difficult to determine which gases, or if alt gases, are causing decreasing ozone tevets. Winds, variations in ultraviolet light, and other factors could change the outcome of any experiment on any given day, making comparisons diffi-cult. Sometimes, it is easier to simulate conditions in a laboratory, where the variables can be more easilv controlled. Conclusion n experiment might generate a large amount of data. Scientists take the data, analyze it, and check it against the hypothesis to form a conclusion]A conclusion is a judgment based on the informa- tion obtained. A hypothesis can never be proven! Therefore, when the data support a hypothesis, this only indicates that the hypothesis might be true ffif further evidence does not support it, then the hypothesis must be discarded or modified] The majority of hypotheses are not supported, but the data might still yield new and useful information. Molina and Rowland formed a hypothesis about the stability of CFCs in the stratosphere. The data that they gathered supported their hypothesis. They developed a model in which the chlorine formed by the breakdown of CFCs would react over and over again with ozone. A model can be tested and used to make predictions. Molina and Rowland's model predicted the formation of chlorine and the depletion of ozone, as shown in Figure 13. Another research group found evidence of interactions between ozone and chlorine when taking measurements in the stratosphere, but they did not know the source of the chlorine. Molina and Rowland's model predicted a source of the chlorine. They came to the conclusion that ozone in the stratosphere could be destroved by CFCs, and they had enough support for their hypothesis to publish their discovery. They won the Nobel Prize in 1995. 0, A free oxygen (0) combines with the chlorine monoxide (CIO) to form oxygen gas (O,) and a chlorine (Cl). Then, the chlorine is free to combine with another ozone. The process begins again. View an animation about ozone depletion. Concepts in Motio FOLDABLES" Incorporate information from this section into your Foldable. Section :..  Figure 14 It does not matter how many times skydivers leap from a plane; Newton's law of universal gravitation applies every time. Theory and Scientific Law [A theory is an explanation of a natural phenomenon based on many observations and investigations over time. Nou might have heard of Einstein's theory of relativity or the atomic theory. A theory states a broad principle of nature that has been supported over time. All theories are still subject to new experimental data and can be modified. Also, theories often lead to new conclusions. A theory is considered valid if it can be used to make predictions that are proven true. Sometimes, many scientists come to the same conclusion about certain relationships in nature and they find no exceptions to these relationships. For example, you know that no matter how many times skydivers, like those shown in Figure 14, leap from a plane, they always return to Earth's surface. Sir Isaac Newton was so certain that an attractive force exists between all obiects that he proposed his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law is a scientific law--a relationship in nature that is supported by many experiments. It is up to scientists to develop further hypotheses and experiments to explain why these relationships exist. SECTION 3 REVIEW Section Summary ○ Scientific methods are svstematic approaches to problem solving. ○ Qualitative data describe an observation: quantitative data use numbers. ○ Independent variables are changed in an experiment. Dependent variables change in response to the independent variable. ○ A theory is a hypothesis that is supported by many experiments. Section Saltcherk 1. MAINIDEA Explain why scientists do not use a standard set of steps for every investigation they conduct. 2. Differentiate Give an example of quantitative and qualitative data. 3. Evaluate You are asked to study the effect of temperature on the volume of a balloon. The balloon's size increases as it is warmed. What is the independent variable? The dependent variable? What factor is held constant? How would vou construct a control? 4. Distinguish Jacques Charles described the direct relationship between temperature and volume of all gases at constant pressure. Should this be called Charles's law or Charles's theorv? Explain. 5. Explain Good scientific models can be tested and used to make predictions. What did Molina and Rowland's model of the interactions of CFCs and ozone in the atmosphere predict would happen to the amount of ozone in the stratosphere as the level of CFCs increased? 16 Chanter 1 a Introduction to Chomicin SECTION 4 Scientific Research Essential Questions MAINIDEA Some scientific investigations result in the development of technology that can improve our lives and the world around us. ○ How do pure research, applied research, and technology compare and contrast? ○ What are some of the important rules for laboratory safety? CHEM Much of the information that scientists obtain through basic 4 YOU research is used to meet a specific need. For example, X-rays were discovered by scientists conducting basic research on electrical discharge through gases. Later, it was discovered that Review Vocabulary X-rays could be used to diagnose medical problems. synthetic: something that is human-made and does not necessarily occur in nature New Vocabulary pure research applied research Types of Scientific Investigations Every day in the media--through TV, newspapers, magazines, or the Internet--the public is bombarded with the results of scientific investi-gations. Many deal with the environment, medicine, or health. As a consumer, vou are asked to evaluate the results of scientific research and development. How do scientists use qualitative and quantitative data to solve different types of scientific problems? Scientists conduct pure research to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself Molina and Rowland were motivated by curiosity and, thus. conducted research on CFCs and their interactions with ozone as pure research. No environmental evidence at the time indicated that there was a correlation to their model in the stratosphere. Their research showed only that CFCs could speed the breakdown of ozone in a laboratory setting. By the time the ozone hole was reported in 1985, scientists had made measurements of CFC levels in the stratosphere that supported the hypothesis that CFCs could be responsible for the depletion of ozone. The early pure research done only for the sake of knowledge became applied research. Applied research is research undertaken to solve a specific problem. Scientists continue to monitor the amount of CFCs in the atmosphere and the annual changes in the amount of ozone in the strato-sphere, as shown in Figure 15. Applied research is also being conducted to find replacement chemicals for the CFCs that are now banned. = Figure 15 This UV-visible spectrometer (UV-Visi is used to measure ozone and other stratospheric gases during the dark winter months in Antarctica. Section 4 Figure 16 After its discovery, nylon was used mainly for war materials and was not available for home use until after World War IL. Today it is used in a variety of products. Watch a video about criminal science investigation. Viden Strands of nylon can be pulled from the top layer of solution. Nylon fibers are used to make hook-and-loop fastener tape. Chance discoveries /Often, a scientist conducts experiments and reaches a conclusion that is far different from what was predicted bome trulv wonderful discoveries in science have been made unexpectedly. You might be familiar with the two examples described below. Connection to Biology Alexander Fleming is famous for making several accidental discoveries. In one accidential discovery, Fleming found that one of his plates of Staphylococcus bacteria had been contaminated by a greenish mold, later identified as Penicillium. He observed it carefully and saw a clear area around the mold where the bacteria had died. In this case, a chemical in the mold- penicillin--was responsible for killing the bacteria. The discovery of nvion is another example of an accidental discov-erv. In 1930. Julian Hill, an emplovee of E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company, dipped a hot glass rod in a mixture of solutions and unexpectedly pulled out long fibers similar to those shown in Figure 16. Hill and his colleagues pursued the development of these fibers as a synthetic silk that could withstand high temperatures. They eventually developed nylon in 1934. During World War Il, nylon was used as a replacement for silk in parachutes. Todav, nylon is used extensively in textiles and some kinds of plastics. It is also used to make hook-and-loop tape, as shown in Figure 16. Students in the Laboratory In your study of chemistry, you will learn many facts about matter. You will also do investigations and experiments in which vou will be able to form hypotheses, test hypotheses, gather data, analyze data, and draw conclusions. When you work in the chemistry laboratory, vou are responsible for your safety and the safety of people working nearby. Often, many people are working in a small space during a lab, so it is important that every. one practice safe laboratory procedures. Table 2 lists some safety rules that you should follow each time you enter the lab. Chemists and all other scientists use these safety rules as well Table 2 Safety in the Laboratory 1. Study your lab assignment before you come to the lab If you have any questions, ask your teacher for help. 2. Do not perform experiments without your teacher's permission. Never work alone in the laboratory. Know how to contact help, if necessary. 3. Use the table on the inside front cover of this textbook to understand the safety symbols. Read and adhere to all WARNING statements. 4. Wear safety goggles and a laboratory apron whenever you are in the lab. Wear gloves whenever you use chemicals that cause irritations or can be absorbed through the skin. If you have long hair, you must tie it back.  5. Do not wear contact lenses in the lab, even under goggles. Lenses can absorb vapors and are difficult to remove during an emergency. 6. Avoid wearing loose, draping clothing and dangling jewelry. Wear only closed-toe shoes in the lab. 7. Keep food, beverages, and chewing gum out of the lab. Never eat in the lab 8. Know where to find and how to use the fire extinguisher, safety shower, fire blanket, first-aid kit, and gas and electrical power shutoffs. 9. Immediately clean up spills on the floor and keep all walkways clear of objects, such as backpacks, to prevent accidental falls or tripping. Report any accident, injury, incorrect procedure, or damaged equipment to your teacher. 10. If chemicals come in contact with your eyes or skin, flush the area immediately with large quantities of water. Immediately inform your teacher of the nature of the spill. 11. Handle all chemicals carefully. Check the labels of all bottles before removing the contents. Read the label three times: before you pick up the container, when the container is in your hand and when you out the bottle back. 12. Do not take reagent bottles to vour work area unless instructed to do so. Use test tubes, paper, or beakers to obtain your chemicals. Take only small amounts. It is easier to get more than to dispose of excess. 13. Do not return unused chemicals to the stock bottle. 14. Do not insert droppers into reagent bottles. Pour a small amount of the chemical into a beaker 15. Never taste any chemicals. Never draw any chemicals into a pipette with your mouth. 1. Keep combustible materials away from open flames. 2. Handle toxic and combustible gases only under the direction of your teacher. Use the fume hood when such materials are present. 3. When heating a substance in a test tube, be careful not to point the mouth of the test tube at another person or yourself. Never look down into the mouth of a test tube. 4. Do not heat graduated cylinders, burettes, or pipettes with a laboratory burner. 5. Use caution and proper equipment when handling a hot apparatus or glassware. Hot glass looks the same as cool glass. 6. Dispose of broken glass, unused chemicals, and products of reactions only as directed by your teacher. 7. Know the correct procedure for preparing acid solutions. Always add the acid to the water slowly. 8. Keep the balance area clean. Never place chemicals directly on the pan of a balance. 9. After completing an experiment, clean and put away your equipment. Clean your work area. Make sure the gas and water are turned off. Wash your hands with soap and water before you leave the lab. Figure 17 This graph shows the concentration of two common CFCs in the atmosphere over Antarctica and the global consumption of CFCs from 1980 to 2000. While CFC consumption began to decrease drastically a few years after the signing of the Montreal Protocol, the concentration of CFCs above Antarctica continued to increase for awhile before slowly leveling out. M GRAPH CHECK Identify when CFCs in Antarctica began to level off after national leaders signed the Montreal Protocol. FOLDABLES" Incorporate information from this section into your Foldable. CFC Consumption and CFCs over Antarcti Global CFC 600 1200 Consumption in Antarctica 400 CFC-12 300 CFCs (parts per trillion) 500 1000 200 §8g 100 CEC-11 200 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 !! Year Global CFC consumption (ozone depletion potential in thousands of metric tons) The Story Continues Now, back to the two substances that you have been reading about. A lot has happened since the 1970s, when Molina and Rowland hypothesized that CFCs broke down stratospheric ozone. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and many other groups are actively collecting historic and current data on CFCs in the atmosphere and ozone concentrations in the stratosphere. Through applied research, scientists determined that not only do CFCs react with ozone, but a few other substances react as well. Carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform are two additional substances that harm the ozone! (Substances that contain bromine can also damage the ozone.) The Montreal Protocol Because ozone depletion is an international concern, nations banded together to try to solve this problem. In 1987, leaders from many nations met in Montreal, Canada, and signed the Montreal Protocol. By signing this agreement, nations agreed to phase out the use of these compounds and place restrictions on how they should be used in the future. As you can see from Figure 17, the global use of CFCs began to decline after the Montreal Protocol was signed. However, the graph shows that the amount of CFCs measured over Antarctica did not decline immediately. The ozone hole today Scientists have also learned that the ozone hole forms each year over Antarctica during the spring) Stratospheric ice clouds form over Antarctica when temperatures there drop below -78°C. These clouds produce changes that promote the production of chemically active chlorine and bromine. When temperatures begin to warm in the spring, this chemically active chlorine and bromine react with ozone, causing ozone depletion. This ozone depletion causes the ozone hole to form over Antarctica. Some ozone depletion also occurs over the Arctic, but temperatures do not remain low for as long, which means less ozone depletion in the Arctic. Upon further research, scientists have also determined that ozone thinning has occurred above every continent. © READING CHECK Explain what triggers the formation of the ozone hole over Antarctica. Figure 18 The ozone hole over Antarctica reached its maximum level of thinning in September 2005. The color-key below shows what the colors represent in this colorized satellite image. Compare How do these ozone levels compare with what is considered normal? Figure 18 shows the ozone hole over Antarctica in September 2005. The ozone thinning over Antarctica reached its maximum for the year during this month. If you compare the color-coded key to the satellite image, you can see that the ozone level is between 110 and 200 DU. Notice the area surrounding the ozone hole. Much of this area has ozone levels around 300 DU, which is considered normal. Scientists are not sure when the ozone layer will begin to recover. Originally, scientists predicted that it would begin to recover in 2050. However, new computer models predict that it will not begin to recover until 2068. The exact date of its recovery is not as important as the fact that it will recover given time. Data Analvsis LAB Based on Real Data* Interpret Graphs How do ozone levels vary throughout the year above Antarctica? Many agencies monitor the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica. Think Critically 1. Describe the trend in the data for 2. 1979-2008. 3. Evaluate how the 2009 data compare with the data from 1979-2008. 1. Identify the month during which the ozone levels were the lowest in 1979-2008. In 2009? 2. Assess Do these data points back up what you learned in this chapter about ozone depletion? Explain your answer. VocaBULaRy WoRD ORIGIn Recover to bring back to normal It takes several days to recover from the flu. Data and Observation This graph displays data from NASA collected over Antarctica. Data values below 220 Dobson Units are defined as the region of the ozone hole area. Minimum Ozone Above Antarctica Total ozone (Dobson units) 350 300 250 200 Parent MAMA y §5 - 1979-2008 2009 s Month "Data obtained from Ozone Hole Watch. 2010. National Aeronautics and Space Figure 19 This car, which is powered by compressed air, and this tiny submarine, which is only 4 mm long, are examples of technologies that are made possible by the study of matter. The Benefits of Chemistry Chemists are an important part of the team of scientists that solve many of the problems or issues that we face today Chemists are not only involved in resolving the ozone depletion problem. They are also involved in finding cures or vaccines for diseases, such as AIDS and influenza) Almost every situation that you can imagine involves a chemist, because everything in the universe is made of matter. Figure 19 shows some of the advances in technology that are possible because of the study of matter. The car on the left is powered by compressed air. When the compressed air is allowed to expand, it pushes the pistons that move the car. Because the car is powered by compressed air, no pollutants are released. The photo on the right shows a tiny submarine that is made by computer-aided lasers. This submarine, which is only 4 mm long, might be used for detecting and repairing defects in the human body. SECTION 4 REVIEW Section Summary ○  cientific methods can be used in pure research or in applied research. S ○ Some scientific discoveries are accidental, and some are the result of diligent research in response to a need. ○ Laboratory safety is the responsibility of everyone in the laboratory. ○ Many of the conveniences we enjoy today are technological applications of chemistry. Section Self-Check 1. MAINIDEA Name three technological products that have improved our lives or the world around us. 2. Compare and contrast pure research and applied research. 3. Classify Is technology a product of pure research or applied research? Explain. 4. Summarize the reason behind each of the following. Wear goggles and an apron in the lab even if you are only an observer. Do not return unused chemicals to the stock bottle. Do not wear contact lenses in the laboratory. Avoid wearing loose, draping clothing and dangling jewelry. 24. Interpret Scientific Diagrams What safety precautions should you take when the following safety symbols are listed? CHAPTER 1 STUDY GUIDE BIGIDEA Chemistry is a science that is central to our lives. SECTION 1 A Story of Two Substances MAINIDEA Chemistry is the study of everything around us. ○ Chemistry is the study of matter. ○ Chemicals are also known as substances. Ozone is a substance that forms a protective laver in Earth's atmosphere. CFCs are synthetic substances made of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon that were originally thought to be the ideal coolants for refrigeration. SECTION 2 Chemistry and Matter MAINIDEA Branches of chemistry involve the study of different kinds of matter. ○ Models are tools that scientists, including chemists, use. ○ Macroscopic observations of matter reflect the actions of atoms on a submicroscopic scale. ○ There are several branches of chemistry, including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, and biochemistry. SECTION 3 Scientific Methods. MAINIDEA Scientists use scientific methods to systematically pose and test solutions to questions and assess the results of the tests. Scientific methods are systematic approaches to problem solving. ○ Qualitative data describe an observation; quantitative data use numbers. ○ Independent variables are changed in an experiment. Dependent variables change in response to the independent variable, ○ A theory is a hypothesis that is supported by many experiments. OBSERVATIONS ○ Existing knowledge ○ Qualitative data ○ Quantitative data PERIMENTS MEORS THEORY Hypothesis supported by many experiments HYPOTHESIS Testable statement or prediction CONCLUSION REVISED REVISED THEORY SCIENTIFIC LAW Summary of accepted facts of nature SECTION 4 Scientific Research MAINIDEA Some scientific investigations result in the development of technology that can improve our lives and the world around us. Scientific methods can be used in pure research or in applied research. Some scientific discoveries are accidental, and some are the result of diligent research in response to a need.  ○ Laboratory safety is the responsibility of everyone in the laboratory. ○ Many of the conveniences we enjoy today are technological applications of chemistry. Vocabulary Prectice VOCABULARY ○ chemistry ○ substance VOCABULARY ○ mass ○ weight ○ model VOCABULARY ○ scientific method ○ qualitative data ○ quantitative data ○ hypothesis ○ experiment ○ independent variable ○ dependent variable ○ control ○ conclusion ○ theory ○ scientific law VOCABULARY ○ pure research ○ applied research SECTION 1 Mastering Concepts 1. Define substance and chemistry. 2. Ozone Where is ozone located in Earth's atmosphere? 3. What three elements are found in chlorofluorocarbons? 4. CFCs What were common uses of CFCs? 5. Scientists noticed that the ozone layer was thinning. What was occurring at the same time? Figure 20 30. Why do chemists study regions of the universe, such as the one shown in Figure 20? Mastering Problems 1. If three oxygen particles are needed to form ozone, how many units of ozone could be formed from 6 oxygen particles? From 9? From 27? 2. Measuring Concentration Figure 6 shows that the CFC level was measured at about 272 pt (parts per thousand) in 1995. Because percent means parts per hundred, what percent is represented by 272 ppt? SECTION 2 Mastering Concepts 1. Why is chemistry called the central science? 2. Which measurement depends on gravitational force-mass or weight? Explain. 3. Which branch of chemistry studies the composition of substances? The environmental impact of chemicals? Mastering Problems 1. Predict whether your weight in the city of Denver, which has an altitude of 1.7 km above sea level, will be the same as, more than, or less than your weight in New Orleans, a city located at sea level. 2. The text tells you that 1 trillion atoms could fit onto a period at the end of this sentence. Write out the number I trillion using the correct number of zeros. arm 4 cm 4 cm Figure 21 38. How much mass will the cube in Figure 21 have if a 2-cm cube of the same material has a mass of 4.0 g? SECTION 3 Mastering Concepts 1. How does qualitative data differ from quantitative data? Give an example of each. 2. What is the function of a control in an experiment? 3. What is the difference between a hypothesis, a theory, and a law? 4. Laboratory Experiments You are asked to study how much table sugar can be mixed or dissolved in water at different temperatures. The amount of sugar that can dissolve in water goes up as the water's temperature goes up. What is the independent variable? Dependent vari-able? What factor is held constant? 5. Label each of the following pieces of data as qualitative or quantitative. A beaker weighs 6.6 g. Sugar crystals are white and shiny. Fireworks are colorful. 44. If evidence you collect during an experiment does not support your hypothesis, what should happen to that hypothesis? Mastering Problems 45. One carbon (C) and one ozone (Os) react to form one carbon monoxide (CO) and one oxygen gas (O,) particle. How many ozone particles are needed to form 24 particles of oxygen gas (O,)? SECTION 4 Mastering Concepts 46. Laboratory Safety Finish each statement about laboratory safety so that it correctly states a safety rule. Study your lab assignment Keep food, beverages, and Know where to find and how to use the Mastering Problems 47. If your lab procedure instructs you to add two parts acid to each one part of water and you start with 25 ml. of water, how much acid will you add, and how will you add it? IHINK CRITICALLY 1. Compare and Contrast Match each of the following research topics with the branch of chemistry that would study it: water pollution, the digestion of food in the human body, the composition of a new textile fiber, metals to make new coins, and a treatment for AIDS  2. Interpret Scientific Diagrams Decide whether each of the diagrams shown below in Figure 22a and b is displaying qualitative or quantitative data. Types of Apples Grown in Bioscience Greenhouse Granny Smith 10% Other 5% Fuji 12% Macintosh 26% Deliciou Data: Characteristics of Product Formed Color white Crystal Form Odor needles a Figure 22 1. Classify CFCs break down to form chemicals that react with ozone. Is this a macroscopic or a microscopic observation? 2. Infer A newscaster reports, "The air quality today is poor. Visibility is only 1.7 km. Pollutants in the air are expected to rise above 0.085 parts per million (ppm) in the next eight-hour average. Spend as little time outside today as possible if you suffer from asthma or other breathing problems. Which of these statements are qualitative and which are quantitative? CUMULATIVE REVIEW In Chapters 2 through 24, this heading will be followed by questions that review your understanding of previous chapters. WRITINGIN> Chemistry 1. Ozone Depletion Based on your knowledge of chemistry, describe the research into depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs in a timeline. 2. CFC Reduction Research the most recent measures. taken by countries around the world to reduce CFCs in the atmosphere since the Montreal Protocol. Write a short report describing the Montreal Protocol and more recent environmental measures to reduce CFCs. 3. Technology Name a technological application of chemistry that you use everyday. Prepare a booklet about its discover and development. DBQ Document-Based Questions Ozone Depletion The area of low-ozone varies over the Antarctic. NOAA collects data and monitors the low-ozone area at the poles. Figure 23 shows the single-day maximum area of the ozone hole for each year from 1995 to 2009 Data obtained from: Southern Hemisphere Winter Summary. 2009. National Copanicano Atmosoherc Administraton Annual Antarctic Ozone Hole Maximu 28. 27.6 26.6 27.5 24.7 24.325.0 331 22.123.022.1 23.1 19.6 18.6 Ozone hole area (million km2) Year Figure 23 1. In what year did the largest maximum area of the ozone hole occur? The smallest? 2. What is the average maximum area of the ozone hole between the vears 2005 and 20092 Between 2000 and 2004? Between 1995 and 1999?