Research Methods PDF

Research Methods SCIENTIFIC REASERCH: collecting and analyzing data to get reliable results There are seven steps to scientific data collection: 1. construct a theory - get previous work/research 1. generate a hypothesis - specific predictions 1. choose research method - deter...

Research Methods SCIENTIFIC REASERCH: collecting and analyzing data to get reliable results There are seven steps to scientific data collection: 1. construct a theory - get previous work/research 1. generate a hypothesis - specific predictions 1. choose research method - determine different experiments 1. collect data - measurement of outcome from test 1. analyze data - TRENDS IN DATA (accept or reject) 1. report the findings - presentations/publish findings 1. revise existing theories - gain new info and revise the old with other people EXPEREMENTAL DESIGN: Anecdotal evidence - evidence that is gathered from someone's own experience. This could not lead to enough evidence to support the theory. This is because 1. There could be the same outcome whether using the manipulated subject or not 1. person experience does not represent everyone's 1. needs more evidence then just one experience When using an experiment to draw conclusions there are three factors to consider: What is the experiment? (a tool used to measure one variable to another) What is the independent variable? (manipulated by experimenter) What is the dependent variable? (observed by experimenter) HERES AN EXAMPLE: Question: how does the amount of enzyme added impact cell and culture growth? Independent variable: amount of enzyme added (the main subject of experiment) dependent variable: cell growth (the outcome that is looked for from the manipulated subject) THIS IS DIRECTLY CONTROLLED!!!!! CONTROL GROUPS: A control group DOES NOT take the manipulation. a experimental group DOES take the manipulation Within participants design: testing the same individual repeatedly while the independent variable is still being manipulated. With this design there is also problems: Practice effect: reducing the control of the experiment leads to not being able to separate the natural improvement from the effects of manipulation on independent variable. Between participant design: one group of people get the manipulated variable, one group of people do not receive it. Both groups tested have to be similar in some way. Confounding Variable: a variable associated with the independent variable that changes the effects of the independent variable on the outcome. Then there will be no conclusions that can be drawn from the experiment. EXAMPLE: Vegetarian vs. non vegetarian CONFOUNDING VARIABLE: Diet! SAMPLING: when using a specific group of participants - the scope of findings is limited so less conclusions can be drawn (need variety) Population: this is learning about a large group of people in a general way Sample: this is collecting data from selected members of that population Random Sample: people who are selected at random so the sample represents a larger group of people. A random sample gives everyone a EQUAL chance of being selected for the study. Random selection - helps ensure that participants are not biased toward a specific group of people Random assignment: assigning participants to be in a control group or experimental group at random to avoid bias and influence results of experiment CONDUCTING AN EXPEREMENT: Placebo effect: having a response to a treatment that has no related therapeutic effects EXAMPLE: "a miracle drug" given to patients to cure an illness even when the drug has no effects Participants Bias: intentionally or unintentionally changing their reaction to an experiment to alter the outcome. aligning with the experimenter to be more favorable or try to align with a specific result. How to battle placebo effect: 1. giving both the control group and experimental group a drink - content of those drinks are different. (one received the energy drink and one received juice) this limits the placebo effect because no individual knows which group they are apart of Experimenter Bias: changing results of experiment to best support their theory. Achieving what was hoped by promotion. EXAMPLE: encouragement of studying more to get an outcome that the experimenter was looking to achieve Going into the experiment blind will minimize bias and going in double blind (both the experimenter and the participants don't know which group is manipulated) will remove the chances for bias completely. SUMMERIZE RAW DATA: stats allow sum, interpret and present data DESCRIPTIVE STATS: presents info about data at a glance to give overall on how experiment went. this shows the mean (average), median (middle number), the mode (most frequent) use histogram to create a frequency distribution normal distribution = equal OUTLIERS: distant measures from other data in set MEASURES OF VARIABILITY: spread and distribution of data set STANDARD DEVIATION: measure distance away from the mean DESCRIPTIVE STEPS TO SUMMERIZE DATA: 1. create histogram for control and experimental group 2. calculate mean and standard deviation INFERENTIAL STATS: using results from samples to make inferences about overall populations having a positive effect (correct hypothesis) the data collected is from a DIFFERENT POPULATION! If it has a negative effect (hypothesis is incorrect) both groups of data is from THE SAME POPULATION! T-TEST: used to compare differences between control and experimental group. (each data point from both groups to calculate the probability that the samples were drawn from the same population) test produces a P-VALUE P-VALUE: a probability (0-1) indicating the likelihood of the difference being observed if no real indifference exists. not significant difference if probability is greater then 5% significant difference if probability is less then 5% Statistical significance: difference between 2 groups is due to some true differences between the properties of the group and not simply due to random variation property difference between 2 groups. significance does not equal meaningful TYPES OF ERRORS: type of error 1: believing a difference when no difference exists (boy who cried wolf) "FALSE ALARM" type of error 2: failing to see a difference when a difference does exist (fail to cry wolf when a wolf is actually attacking sheep) (NO AID) "MISS" EXAMPLE: bio male being told that he is pregnant is type 1 bio female is pregnant but being told is not is type 2 CORRELATION: a measure of strength of the relationship between 2 variables CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (R): a number between -1 and +1 indicating both the strength and direction of the correlation +1 = perfect positive correlation -1 = perfect negative correlation 0 = no relationship Correlation DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION!!!!!!! (ice cream does not CAUSE allergies) Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning allows us to associate two related events Instrumental conditioning allows us to associate actions and consequences When there is an association between a signal and an event it is a contingent relationship that has been formed between stimuli EXAMPLE: strawberry causes an allergic reaction Classical conditioning definition- the learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later event that are paired in time and or space. When a contingent is learned a response to a signal can happen before the event even occurs Classical conditioning allows for the body to prepare for challenges to homeostasis Classical conditioning is an adaptive dynamic and complex process, critical for psychological and behavioural regulations Components of Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - Any stimulus or event Triggers a response naturally EXAMPLE: lemon placed in human mouth causes/triggers a reaction naturally Unconditioned Response (UR) - The response that occurs after the unconditioned stimulus  Occurs naturally, prior to training or learning EXAMPLE: Food - response is salivation Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (natural) - Paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a learned contingency Triggers a response on its own EXAMPLE: sight or smell of lemon is conditioned stimulus after lemon being placed in mouth overtime Conditioned Response (CR) - The response that occurs once the contingency between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus has been learned EXAMPLE: sound of bell will one day have the dog start to salivate without food or the anticipation of getting food Acquisition - the process by which a contingency between a controlled stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is learned  Most learning takes place in early trails. Some in later trials Some contingencies can be acquired after I trail : rats and eating habits to survive Questions To Ask: Extinction: Definition - the loss of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus To unlearn:  Case 1 - forgotten (unlearn) Case 2 - a new conditioned stimulus is brought up so the old is gone. A new conditioned stimulus that is competing and counteracts/modified (faster rate of retraining) Spontaneous recovery: Definition - the sudden recovery to a conditioned response following a rest period after extinction Stimulus Generalization: Definition - the process by which stimuli similar to the conditioned stimuli will also elicit a conditioned response EXAMPLE: being bitten by a great Dane dog once as a child, as an adult you are afraid of the dog that bit you but also any type of dog that looks close to the original. The fear gets lower as the other dogs become more and more different from the dog that actually bit you Stimulus Discrimination: Definition - restricts the range of conditioned stimuli that can elicit a response CS+ -- presence of biological stimuli CS- -- absence of biological stimuli Present at the same time? - intermediate fear response Discrimination refines the learning process Therapies for treating phobias: Implosive therapy - confront (using imagination) EXAMPLE:. Someone with a germ phobia may be asked to imagine themselves sitting with their hands covered in dirt and grime for as long as possible, while accepting that sickness or danger will not follow Systematic Desensitization - Gradual and leading up to major fear (little by little) EXAMPLE: fear of bears? Start with a gummy bear then little stuffed bear and so on EXAMPLE: a person with a germ phobia may begin therapy by covering their hands with paper confetti while learning to relax and prevent anxiety; gradually, they will work through stages of increasingly fearful stimuli, until finally reaching the point of covering their hands in dirt and grime Instrumental Conditioning Introduction to Instrumental Conditioning: Focus on learning voluntary behaviors and their consequences (different from classical conditioning which is reflexive). Learning involves understanding the consequences of specific behaviors (e.g., touching a stove results in a burn). Instrumental conditioning is also referred to as operate conditioning. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box and Law of Effect: Thorndike's Experiment: Cats learn to escape by pulling a rope after trial and error. Law of Effect: Behavior followed by positive outcomes is reinforced ("stamped in"), and behavior followed by negative outcomes is eliminated ("stamped out"). There’s no "aha" moment; learning is gradual. Types of Reinforcement and Conditioning: Reinforcer: any stimulus that is presented after a response that impacts the frequency that the response is performed. Positive Reinforcement (Reward Training): Presents a positive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of the behavior (e.g., giving a treat). Negative Reinforcement (Escape Training): Removes a negative stimulus to increase the behavior (e.g., turning off shock when the rat moves). Positive Punishment (Punishment Training): Adds a negative stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., scolding). Negative Punishment (Omission Training): Removes a positive stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., time-out).  Ethical issues with punishment: May cause fear or distress toward authority figures, as argued by BF Skinner. Shaping and Chaining: Shaping By Successive Approximation: Gradually reinforcing behaviors closer to the desired outcome (e.g., training animals to perform tricks step by step). Chaining: Teaching a sequence of behaviors where each step reinforces the next (e.g., learning the alphabet). Difference between them: shaping is a reinformed behavior only if it is a closer approximation of the desired final behavior. (reinforcement on the basis of improvement). Chaining is reinforced performed in defined order (prior to training) Auto shaping: simple behaviors can be learned in the absence of explicit learning Discriminative Stimulus (SD) and Generalization: SD: Signals when reinforcement is available (e.g., green light signals food for pigeon). S-delta (S-): Signals when reinforcement is not available (e.g., red light). SD and S- enhance discrimination learning; behavior is more finely tuned to SD. Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a specific number of responses. High response rate but leads to pauses (e.g., FR-10: reward every 10 responses). Staircase graph Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, maintaining high, steady response rates (e.g., slot machines). Linear graph Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a set time, producing "scallop" pattern of responding (e.g., weekly quizzes). Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement at random times, producing a steady response rate (e.g., pop quizzes). Linear graph  Partial reinforcement schedule: not reinforced after each response Partial Reinforcement and Extinction: Behaviors learned on partial schedules are more resistant to extinction than those learned on continuous schedules. Continuous reinforcement leads to quicker extinction once rewards stop because the subject notices the change immediately. Problem Solving and Intelligence Defining Intelligence Intelligence is often defined as the ability to perform cognitive tasks, learn from experience, and adapt to the environment. Operational Definition: Sternberg defines intelligence as the cognitive ability to learn from experience, reason well, remember important information, and cope with the demands of daily life. Problem Solving and Intelligence Problem Solving is a key indicator of intelligence and involves using different strategies to find solutions to complex situations. Types of Reasoning:  ○ Deductive Reasoning: Starts from general principles to make specific conclusions. Example: From the idea that "organized people have clean desks," deduce that Michelle’s desk is clean. ○ Inductive Reasoning: Moves from specific observations to broader generalizations. Example: Sarah’s messy desk leads to a general belief that she is disorganized. Scientific Method Combines deductive and inductive reasoning: ○ Deductive: Use a theory to predict outcomes. ○ Inductive: Use observed data to refine the theory. ○ Example: Designing experiments (e.g., testing if an energy drink improves performance) involves cycling between these reasoning types. Insight Problems and Functional Fixedness Insight problems test one's ability to think creatively, outside of conventional uses (e.g., the candle problem where you must use a box as a candleholder). Functional Fixedness: Difficulty in seeing objects beyond their typical use, which can impede problem-solving. Intelligence Testing Two key qualities of a test: ○ Reliability: The consistency of the test results. ○ Validity: The test’s accuracy in measuring what it claims to measure. IQ Tests: Standardized to have a mean score of 100 with a normal distribution. Multiple Intelligences Theory (Howard Gardner) Gardner proposed eight types of intelligence: Verbal, mathematical, musical, spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Independent from others While popular, critics argue that there is little evidence for this theory. Ignores the fact that people who score well on one intelligence test are very likely to do well on others. Nature vs. Nurture in Intelligence Genetic Influence: Studies with twins suggest a strong genetic component (e.g., identical twins show a high IQ correlation of +0.8). Environmental Influence: Fraternal twins raised together also show a significant correlation (+0.6), suggesting that environment plays a role. Flynn Effect Flynn Effect: Observes a steady increase in raw IQ test scores globally since 1932. Possible causes include better education, nutrition, and access to information. Cognitive Development (Piaget’s Theory) Piaget’s four stages: 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Understanding through sensory experiences and physical interactions. Milestone: Object permanence.  2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Mastery of object permanence but struggles with egocentrism (child wants to play so mom wants to play too), seriation (ordering a series of objects), reversable relationships (I have a brother but my brother may not have a sister) and conservation tasks (two glasses the same amount, pours into a taller glass, still wants the one with more liquid). 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years): Logical thinking with concrete information but struggles with abstract concepts (reason based on hypothesis) 4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. Schema: a mental framework for interpreting the world around us Assimilation; incorporating new information into existing schemas Incompatible with the existing schema? Child must drastically alter schema for new information to make sense through accommodation Accommodation: modifying existing schemas to fit incompatible information Heuristics in Decision Making Heuristics are mental shortcuts to simplify decision-making but can lead to errors. ○ Availability Heuristic: Judging the frequency of events based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., assuming car accidents are more common than they are due to media coverage). ○ Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something based on how closely it fits a prototype (e.g., assuming Steve, who is quiet, is an English professor). ○ Heuristic: mental shortcut Confirmation Bias Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek out information that supports one’s beliefs rather than looking for disconfirming evidence. ○ Example: A doctor focusing on evidence supporting their initial diagnosis without considering conflicting symptoms. Gambler's Fallacy Representativeness Heuristic contributes to the Gambler’s Fallacy, where individuals believe a certain outcome is “due” based on previous outcomes, even though each event is independent Heuristic: mental shortcut Additional Insights Challenges in Measuring Intelligence: Operational definitions and measurement reliability are difficult, even in areas that seem objective like fingerprint ID Understanding Abstract Concepts: Tests may appear reliable but can fail in validity. Intelligence is hard to quantify and understand comprehensively. Language Defining Language Language is a system of communication that allows individuals or groups to share information. It differs from other forms of communication (e.g., animal growls, bird songs) due to three distinct characteristics: Regularity: Language follows rules (grammar). For example, "The cat sat on the mat" can be reorganized into "On the mat, the cat sat," and still retain its meaning. Arbitrariness: The connection between words and their meanings is arbitrary. There is no inherent reason why the word "cat" refers to a small, furry animal; it could just as well be called something else in another language (e.g., "angi" in Korean). Productivity: Language is highly flexible and creative. Humans can generate limitless sentences to describe new or unfamiliar situations. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Overview: This theory suggests that the language we speak shapes how we think and perceive the world. According to this hypothesis, language influences cognition. Support: The Pirahã tribe in Brazil provides an example. Their language has only three counting words (one, two, and many). As a result, they struggle to understand numbers beyond these distinctions. Counterargument: Despite language differences, humans can still understand concepts. For instance, in French, the word "belle-mère" refers to both "stepmother" and "mother-in-law," but French speakers still differentiate between the two individuals based on context. This challenges the idea that language fully determines thought. Building Blocks of Language Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language. For example: ○ "Table" is a single morpheme.  ○ "Tables" contains two morphemes: "table" (the object) and "s" (indicating plurality). Phonemes: The smallest units of sound in a language. For instance, the word "dog" has three phonemes: /d/, /o/, and /g/. Syntax: This is the set of rules that governs how words are arranged into sentences. Syntax differs across languages, yet all languages have rules that speakers follow unconsciously. ○ Example: In French, grammatical gender affects syntax (e.g., "le chat" for "the male cat" vs. "la chatte" for "the female cat"). In English, nouns are typically gender-neutral. Semantics: The meaning of individual words or phrases. A sentence may have correct syntax but lack meaningful semantics (e.g., "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" is syntactically correct but semantically nonsensical). Language Development in Children Stages of Development: ○ Babbling: Infants begin by making drawn-out sounds that combine consonants and vowels. Over time, these sounds mimic the rhythm and intonation of the language they are exposed to. ○ Vocabulary Growth (Language Explosion): Around 1.5 to 6 years old, children rapidly expand their vocabulary. ○ Speech Segmentation: Infants learn to detect individual words within the continuous stream of speech they hear. Early segmentation skills are strong predictors of later language abilities. Infants who are better at speech segmentation tend to have larger vocabularies by the age of two. Theories of Language Acquisition Social Learning Theory: ○ Language is learned through imitation and reinforcement. For example, when a child says "mama" and is praised, this reinforces their behavior.  ○ Criticism: Children often produce sentences they've never heard before, indicating that imitation and reinforcement alone cannot explain the rapid and complex nature of language acquisition. Innate Mechanism Theory (Chomsky): ○ Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a biological mechanism that allows us to understand and develop language. ○ Evidence: Deaf children who were not exposed to formal language (spoken or sign language) have been observed creating their own form of sign communication, using consistent grammatical rules despite not being taught. ○ Universal Grammar: Chomsky argued that all human languages share some underlying grammatical structures. While the specific rules may differ, the ability to learn and apply these rules is innate. Language Errors in Children Overextensions: A child applies a word too broadly. For example, a child may call all four-legged animals "doggie." Underextensions: A child applies a word too narrowly. For example, they might use the word "doggie" only for their own pet, not for other dogs. Overregularization: A child applies regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs. For example, a child might say "runned" instead of "ran." These errors demonstrate that children are actively constructing rules, not simply imitating adults. Animal Communication vs. Human Language Examples of Animal Communication: ○ Honeybee Waggle Dance: A highly specialized form of communication used to indicate the direction and distance of a food source. Although complex, it is limited to a single purpose.  ○ Birdsong: Birds use complex songs for mating and territory defense, but the structure of these songs is not flexible in the way human language is. Attempts to Teach Language to Animals: ○ Washoe the Chimpanzee: Taught to use American Sign Language (ASL) to communicate basic needs, but lacked systematic grammar. ○ Kanzi the Bonobo: Learned to communicate using lexigrams (symbols) without formal reinforcement. However, his understanding of grammar was still limited, and he could not produce novel sentence combinations like humans. Neurobiological Evidence for Language Acquisition Infant Sensitivity to Language: Even before they can speak, infants prefer listening to speech sounds over non-speech sounds. They also show universal phoneme sensitivity, meaning they can distinguish phonemes from any language. ○ By the end of the first year, infants lose the ability to discriminate between phonemes that are not used in their native language (e.g., the /r/ and /l/ distinction in English, which is difficult for Japanese speakers). Critical Periods in Language Development Genie Case Study: Genie, a child who was isolated and deprived of language exposure until the age of 13, struggled to fully develop language skills after her rescue. This case supports the idea that there is a critical period for language acquisition, beyond which it becomes significantly more difficult to learn a language. Language and Cognition Thought Without Language: A major debate in psychology is whether abstract thought is possible without language. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language shapes thought, but counterexamples (e.g., cultures that lack certain words but still understand the concepts) suggest that thought can exist independently of language. Categories and Concepts Overview of Categorization Categorization is essential for humans to process information, make decisions, and navigate the world efficiently. It allows us to group objects, events, or ideas based on shared characteristics, which simplifies decision-making and understanding. Examples of Categorization in Action Recognizing whether a person with a cane on a bus is fit or elderly helps decide whether to offer a seat. Prioritizing a task based on its importance (e.g., a school project). Identifying familiar odors or objects by relating them to past experiences (e.g., recognizing a partner's deodorant by smell). Importance of Categorization Without categorization, each sensory experience would feel unique and overwhelming, leading to difficulty in making even simple decisions. Categorization helps prevent being "lost in an ocean of experiences," by linking current experiences to past ones. Functions of Categorization 1. Classification: Allows us to treat different objects or experiences as belonging to the same group. For example, different-colored apples are classified as "apples" despite differences in color.  2. Understanding: Helps us evaluate situations based on past experiences and act accordingly. For instance, categorizing two people arguing as a private conflict, which does not require intervention. 3. Communication: Facilitates efficient communication by allowing us to label complex ideas or objects with single words (e.g., using "furniture" to describe different pieces like chairs and tables). The Illusion of the Expert People often think certain tasks are simple because they are good at them. This phenomenon is known as the illusion of the expert. For instance, tasks like tying shoes seem simple to an adult but are challenging for a child. Theories of Categorization 1. Prototype Theory: ○ Suggests that we categorize objects by comparing them to an internal representation (prototype) of a category. ○ A prototype is the "average" or most typical member of a category (e.g., an apple for the category "fruit"). ○ Categorization occurs by comparing new objects to these prototypes. The closer the object is to the prototype, the quicker it is categorized. ○ Example: People respond faster when asked if a "robin is a bird" than if a "penguin is a bird," because a robin is closer to the bird prototype. 2. Exemplar Theory: ○ Suggests that instead of having one prototype, we store all experiences of a category (exemplars).  ○ When categorizing a new object, we compare it to all previous experiences. The closest matching exemplar determines categorization. ○ Example: A person may identify a new dog based on all the dogs they've encountered, not just one prototype. Challenges to Prototype Theory Prototypes shift over time, which contradicts the idea that they should remain stable with more experience. Exemplar Theory explains these shifts, suggesting that even a single new experience can influence how we categorize in the future. Studies Supporting Theories Medical Diagnosis Study: Dermatologists were better at diagnosing skin disorders when they had previously encountered a single exemplar of the disorder, supporting Exemplar Theory. Baboons' Categorization: Baboons were trained to categorize food vs. non-food items, and later, they were able to categorize abstract concepts like "same" and "different." This supports the idea that non-human animals also have categorization abilities, although their performance is more limited compared to humans. Categorization in Children Children as young as three can generalize facts learned about one dog to all dogs, demonstrating early understanding of categories. However, children also recognize that some categories are innate (e.g., animals) and cannot be easily altered, unlike machines, which can be modified (e.g., turning a toaster into a teapot). Stereotypes and Categorization Categorization can also lead to social stereotypes, where individuals assume that members of a group share certain traits. This is an extension of categorization processes where people make predictions based on group membership, sometimes leading to inaccurate or harmful assumptions.