Environmental Science: Social Issues PDF

# Environmental Science: Social Issues ## Introduction The term *sustainable development* was introduced by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) in its 1987 report *Our Common Future*. The concept has been very effective at raising public awareness for...

# Environmental Science: Social Issues ## Introduction The term *sustainable development* was introduced by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) in its 1987 report *Our Common Future*. The concept has been very effective at raising public awareness for sustaining the planet with better management. Sustainable development has been defined as "meeting the need of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generation". The concept emphasizes using the earth's resources judiciously and compensating for their use. For example, if people cut down some trees to support their lives, they should also plant new trees in another location. This would help maintain the earth's fine balance between resource consumption and resource generation. In understanding this concept, it is important to consider two terms: *sustainable* and *development*. ## Sustainable The literal meaning of *sustainability* is "that can be maintained" or "keep goal continuously". In ecological sense, it refers to "conservation of ecological balance by avoiding depletion of natural resources". This means that something is *sustainable* if it can continue for a long time. ## Development The literal meaning of *development* is "the act or instance of growth/advancement". So, *development* can be of many types, such as growth of education, growth of industry, growth of population, growth of forests, and many others. However, there is an issue of growing concern about "improving the well-being of human beings". This can only be achieved through compromising with some of our comforts and luxuries. The generation of comforts and luxuries brings the environment under great pressure. The Nations economic growth should not stand upon the fragile foundation of earth's resources. Mahatma Gandhi, a great social scientist, rightly pointed out that, "The earth provides enough to satisfy everyone's need, but not everyone's greed". ## In the context of economical and technical development The world has always been better today than yesterday and will always be better tomorrow than today. But the condition of the environment will always be poorer than before. Therefore, the concept of *sustainable development* raises certain questions for the present generations to answer: - What is our present? - Are we happy with our present? - Prospective changes of the magnitude described above raise fundamental questions about the kind of world we will bequeath to our children and about the nature and goals of development. The present in which we live is very important because it shapes our future. Not much can be done to recover the damages imposed on nature in the past. But if we shape our surroundings based on *environmental ethics* and *economically exploit* our current environment, we would lend a healthier tomorrow to our children. As we have examined some environmental issues in previous chapters, we would commonly agree that human population growth, loss of biodiversity, habitat destruction, ozone depletion, global climate change, pollution (air, water, noise, etc.), and limited food and energy supply are environmental concerns of global scale. In the past two decades, a great deal of work from researchers, ecologists, environmental scientists, social scientists, geographers, and demographers have built up a very clear picture of what our tomorrow would be like: - Some initiatives have been taken up both at the government and non-government level. - Still, promising environmental concern at the individual level is far lacking beyond sustainable needs Although population growth continues to expand at an unsustainable pace, certain countries have achieved a *demographic transition* to zero population growth. However, positive signs from developing nations are still absent. Some positive signs to note are: - breakthroughs in renewable energy sources, agro-forestry schemes, and better pollution control advancements. - Increased human awareness, resourcefulness, and enterprise will help eliminate poverty and resource wastage and will make our environment a much better place to live in. - Until *environmental concerns* do not find space in our heart, we will never be able to delicately handle our surroundings at home or in public. - We should recognize things at a personal and collective level to protect nature and to create a *sustainable environment*. ## Urban Problems Related to Energy Big cities and towns have always influenced education, religion, commerce, communication, and politics, which in turn have influenced culture and society in various proportions. Initially only a very limited section of the society lived in cities and towns, while the chief occupation of the majority of the population had been fishing, hunting, agriculture, and cattle rearing. However, the Industrial Revolution led to an expansion of cities and towns both in size and power. In developing nations, especially a large segment of society from villages moved to cities for occupational support (Occupational migration). This was the cause of the rapid expansion of cities and formation of metropolitans like Delhi, Bombay, Chennai, Bangalore, Calcutta, and others. This ultimately brought into picture the concept of urbanization and industrializations, *which provided many benefits to society, especially to the rich, but also introduced some evils in it*: - The increasing demand on energy resources is the chief issue, resulting in multitude problems of pollution, resource shortage, diseases, and waste disposal. Some of the major urban problems related to energy are: - **Electricity**: Electricity from various sources is a major requirement of expanding cities, towns, and villages. Housing gadgets such as mixer-grinders, televisions, computers, music systems, geysers, fans, lights, A.C.s, microwaves, water lifting pumps, warm blowers, coolers, etc. form the essential components of a home. All of this has led to an electricity crunch. It is well known that some part of the electricity is lost in transmission and greater part is stolen. The remainder is simply not enough to support the majority of people in the city. It is well known that some part of electricity is lost in transmission and a greater part is stolen. The remainder is simply not enough to support the majority of people in the city. The problem of electricity in major cities is on the rise. Buildings are empowering the cities like anything, but nowhere are we seeing dams and other electrical units increasing in number at the same pace. As a result, most cities experience a usual cut of electricity for a minimum of 6-8 hours. This limits the quality of urban life. - **Fossil Fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal)**: Fossil fuels have always been under threat from times immemorial. In the absence of technological advancements, they have served mankind for several years. With rising technical know-how, man started generating power from nuclear sources, hydroelectric power, wind power, etc. However, these are still only a small part of the energy generated. We still depend on thermal power a lot. - *Petrol and Diesel:* Transport and communication has brought petroleum reserves of the world under a great threat. The rise in the number of vehicles each year is immense. The gravity of the situation can be seen in the roads and lanes of big cities, small cities, and towns, which are all loaded with two-wheeled vehicles. - *Natural Gas*: The common use of natural gas is through Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). There is a terrific rise in the use of LPG-driven household commodities with the expanding population. Earlier, the LPG usage was only limited to kitchens for cooking. Recent technological advancements introduced a numerous household items, making its use like gas geysers, gas heaters, gas fans, gas lanterns, etc. In a way, it serves as a substitute for electricity, which is another reason for increasing pressure on oil wells and reserves. - *Coal* The world population has extracted and used coal thinking as if it is a never-ending source. Coal has helped with: - Sustainable Development - Urban Problems - Water Conservation and Management - Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People - Environmental Ethics - Global Warming - Environment Protection Act. - Issues involved in Enforcement of Environment Legislation. Millions throughout the ages used coal. It was primarily used to support kitchens. People also utilized it for heating stoves and heaters in colder regions of the world. Later, its usage in the railways became the main cause of its rapid exhaustion. Coal reserves are a limited source of energy now and should be used judiciously and economically. - **Fuel wood:** Fuel wood is used for the ignition of fires and is chiefly responsible for the destruction of impoverished forestlands. Though fuel wood collection for daily chores is allowed in certain parts of the forest, greed and dearth forces women to penetrate deep into the forest. In big cities, which lack forestland at the fringes, the degraded forest that is available serves as a source of fuel wood, even in and around urban centers. For instance, Dehradun is a well-developed city, but in its fringes, women and children can still be seen carrying loads of fuel wood. ## Water Conservation It is possible to save as much as half of the water we now use for domestic purposes without great sacrifice or serious changes in our lifestyles. Simple steps, such as taking shorter showers, stopping leaks, and washing cars, dishes, and clothes as efficiently as possible, can go a long way toward forestalling the water shortages that many authorities predict. Isn't it better to adapt to more conservative uses now when we have a choice than to be forced to do so by scarcity in the future? ## Rain Water Harvesting Water is commonly taken for granted as nature's gift. Often, it is wasted in agriculture, but industry and people pollute and poison available water supplies at an alarming rate. Water problems arise from increasing demands generated by rapid population growth, urbanization, industrialization, and irrigation for additional food production. In many areas excessive pumping of groundwater not only brings down water quality, but also depletes it. This affects' sustainability: The capacity of irrigation tanks numbering about five lakh in the country is shrinking due to situation and encroachment. Scarcity is noticed even in high rainfall areas like Cherrapunji (Assam), Western Ghats and Kerala. This is due to improper management and poor conservation of rainwater. India's water potential is substantial, but the scarcity is felt everywhere, even for drinking. This is because the country's water policy and management are not very specific, and implementation is poor. Total rain in the country is about 400 million hectare meters (M hm). The runoff in the rivers is estimated at 186 M hm. Furthermore, the utilizable groundwater is calculated as 40 M hm. However, the utilizable quantity is about 110-115 M hm (70 M hm from surface and 40 M hm from groundwater). To meet the relentless increase in demand for water for various purposes and to achieve the goal of optimal use and to get the maximum benefits, it is necessary to make water resource development holistic through a comprehensive integrated river basin planning and management. This can only be done if a wide range of disciplines are involved. Wastage of water due to leakage in pipes and unattended repairs results in about 30-40 percent water resource lost. The landscape watershed units can be effectively subdivided into discrete hydrological units. Since the watersheds are spatially laid from ridge to valley, they most efficiently conserve land and water resources and help secure water availability throughout the growing season. The land area of the watershed drains into a common point. Hence, the drainage water can be easily stored in above-ground storage structures for recycling during droughts or for growing an additional crop. Rain-fed agriculture research and development has been dominated by the concept of high yields for decades. It arose from the scientific principles developed for the 'green revolution' high input, high-output technologies. Fatigue and cracks are now developing in the green revolution areas. For rain-fed agriculture, an area-based development through watershed management provides an excellent framework for sustaining semi-arid tropical ecologies. Also, the landscape watershed units focus on the maintenance of managed biodiversity through diversified cropping systems. It is significant to note that a broad range of baseline information on watershed-based soil' and water conservation technologies already exists. A study commissioned by the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Hyderabad, showed that if the watershed technology is to succeed, it must be specific to natural endowments of the location; it must be built on indigenous knowledge; it should be based on people's participation; it must be equitable in sharing of costs and benefits, and village-based institutions must be put-in-place right from inception of the project. ## Watershed Management It was suggested that, rather than allowing residential, commercial, or industrial development on flood plains, these areas should be reserved for water storage, aquifer recharge, wildlife habitat, and agriculture. Sound farming and forestry practices can reduce runoff. Retaining crop residue on fields reduces flooding, and minimizing ploughing and forest cutting on steep slopes protects watersheds. Wetlands conservation preserves natural water storage capacity and aquifer recharge zones. A river fed by marshes and wet meadows tend to run consistently clear and steady rather than in violent floods. A series of small dams on tributary streams can hold backwater before it becomes a great flood. Ponds formed by these dams provide useful wildlife habitat and stock-watering facilities. They also catch soil where it could be returned to the fields. Small dams can be built with simple equipment and local labour; eliminating the need for massive construction projects and huge dams. Watershed-based frame for rain-fed agriculture provides uncommon opportunities for achieving sustainable food' and nutritional security. It is time that the watershed development agenda is considered a programme for-the masses. ## Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People "Land for land" is a better policy than cash settlement. Even in implementing this policy, the land is not given in the command area in most cases; forestland is either cleared on waste fallow land given without any provision for developing the land or for the supply of necessary inputs; a village is broken up and families dispersed; villagers are usually left to buy private land, take loans from the government, which puts poor villagers at a disadvantage; land prices in neighboring villages shoot up steeply if the government takes up resettlement; villagers are resettled in distant places, sometimes in a totally alien environment and culture, thus creating insurmountable adjustment problems. Oustees from Pong dam in Himachal Pradesh were settled in Anupgarh in Rajasthan, bordering on Pakistan. The people were generally left to fend for themselves. Arrangements for drinking water, dispensaries, schools, village roads, or drainage of the rehabilitation sites are only completed years later. In the case of the Ukai Dam in Gujarat, resettlement work was undertaken by the 'Ukai Nav Nirman Samity'. Even so, out of a total of 18,500 affected families, only 3,500 families could be resettled. People who could previously barely manage to survive in their traditional environment are uprooted as a result. The objectives of rehabilitation should be: 1. The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of development. 2. Creating new settlements with their own environment should rehabilitate them. 3. Removal of poverty should also be an objective of the rehabilitation policy and, therefore, some land to all. 4. Oustees (even the landless) should be given assurance of employment 5. While dealing with tribal people, the following five principles of tribal-development accepted during Jawaharlal Nehru's era as 'tribal panchsheel' should be kept in mind: - Tribal should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them. - We should try to encourage their own traditional arts and culture in every way. - Resettlement should be in the neighborhood of their own environment. If resettlement is not possible in the command area, top priority should be given to the development of irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for agriculture; drinking water, wells, grazing grounds for cattle schools for the children, primary health care units and other amenities should be arranged. - In partly affected village, villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others with the same compensation as available to evacuees. - Training facilities should be set up to upgrade the skills of affected people, and reservation in jobs should be made for the willing adults among the evacuees. - Special attention should be given to the rehabilitation of artisans and village crafts people. - Villagers should be taken into confidence at every stage of implementation and they should be educated, through open meetings and discussions, about the legalities of the Land Acquisition Act and other rehabilitation provisions. - The aid of voluntary agencies planning and implementation programme. ## Rehabilitation Problems Involuntary displacement of the human population is always traumatic. Irrespective of the causes leading to such migrations, the degree of suffering experienced by such people simply cannot be quantified in money values, and even in words, it can only be described inadequately. But, unfortunately, ousting of people likely to be submerged under irrigation or hydel power dams is a classic case where hardships are imposed on people in spite of the 'pro-people' laws and policies proclaimed by the Government. Below is a critique of the Tehri Dam Rehabilitation. ## Compensatory Land The project authorities commenced the Scheme by allocating 2,767 acres of land in the Dehra Dun area, which was already reeling under severe pressure from tourism, limestone quarrying, and urban expansion. ## Rehabilitation should be collective In villages, almost every family depends on the other. The social and moral obligations towards each other bind them into one cohesive whole. The authorities are rehabilitating individual families and not the village as a whole. ## Monetary Compensation Mere payment of cash is not rehabilitation. Moreover, the amount of cash paid as compensation is insufficient to buy land in other places because of the high rates. The oustees, being basically farmers, lack the business acumen needed to set up a viable commercial alternative. Since they are not accustomed to having such large sums (relative to their usually small incomes) in a lump sum, they are ignorant as to how they should spend it. ## Mismanagement The project authorities estimated the total affected population in 1981 as 46,000. Using the Census Office figures, the total number affected for 1981 is actually 70,000. ## Lack of Public Relations The majority of the populace to be displaced consists of adivasis, tribal, scheduled castes that have a unique lifestyle. The traumatic experience of shifting to new areas and new occupations involving drastic changes in their lifestyle, weighs heavily on these people. The absence of any public relation efforts has further aggravated the situation. ## Housing Compensation It is necessary to highlight a major flaw in the procedure for fixed immovable property like houses, wells, barns, fences, cattle-stalls, etc. The present procedure evaluates the "current worth" or ""value after depreciation" for determining the amount of compensation. This concept is faulty. He should be paid an amount for his house, etc., equivalent to the cost of reconstructing a dwelling place equal to the plinth area lost under submergence. This amount (i.e., replacement cost) will obviously be more than the 'current worth' of his old dwelling. ## Environmental Ethics The Earth is unique among all the planets in our solar system. It is endowed with plentiful resources. Man's greed to raise his standard of living compels him to control and tap natural resources. Many rivers throughout the world have been "controlled" to provide power, irrigation, and navigation for the people at the expense of the natural world. If such gifts of nature are not tapped for resource generation, many people think it to be wastage of resources. The capitalists want to use the forests for timber production, and not doing so is closely linked to economical hardships. Removing the trees would destroy something that took hundreds of years to develop and may never be replaced. Efforts to manage the interactions between people and their environment are an age-old practice. At one time, pollution was a local, temporary event, but today, pollution problems have crossed international borders and have become global. The seminars over chemical and radioactive waste disposal witness the increasingly international nature of pollution. Ethical issues dealing with the environment are no different from other kinds of problems. The concept of an environmental ethics could encompass differing principles and beliefs. Ethics is one branch of philosophy, which fundamentally attempts to define what is right and what is wrong, regardless of cultural differences. Environmental ethics are formulated on the basis that human beings are a part of nature and nature has many interdependent components. In any natural ecosystem, the well-being of the individual and of each species is linked to the well-being of the entire community. In a world increasingly without environmental borders, nations, like individuals, should have a fundamental ethical responsibility to respect nature and to care for the Earth, protecting its life-support systems, biodiversity, and beauty, caring for the needs of other countries and future generations. Environmental ethicists argue that to consider environmental protection as a "right" of the planet is a natural extension of concepts of human rights. Although there are many different attitudes about the environment, three types of the ethics are identified: - **The development ethic.** Development in all sectors is inevitable. But development should not crop up at the cost of environmental failure. This philosophy is strengthened by the idea that, "if it can be done, it should be done." - **The preservation ethic.** This ethic considers nature special in itself. Some preservationists have an almost religious outlook regarding nature. They believe that nature is a beautiful place to live in and it should be maintained for feeding, breeding, enjoyment, and peace. Another scientific outlook argues that the human species depends on and has much to learn from nature. Rare and endangered species and ecosystems, as well as the more common ones, must be preserved because of their known or assumed long-range, practical utility. - **The conservation ethic.** This ethic recognizes the desirability of decent living standards, but it works towards a balance of resource use and resource availability. Economic growth and resource exploitation are attitudes shared by developing societies. As a society, we continue to consume natural resources as if the supplies were never ending. This is reflected in our increasingly unstable relationship with the environment, which grows out of our tendency to take from the 'common good' without regard' for the future. ## Industrial Environmental Ethics Industries are harmful to the health of the environment and hence at large are considered as a nuisance. When raw materials are processed, some waste is inevitable (e.g., the paper industry leads to a lot of wastage and pollution of water). It is usually not possible to completely control the dispersal of all by-products of a manufacturing process. Also, some of the waste material may simply be useless. Ethics are involved, however, when an industrialist compromises upon the quality of a product or waste disposal to maximize profit. It is cheaper to dump wastes into a river than to install a wastewater treatment facility. At its core, environmental justice means fairness. It speaks to the impartiality that should guide the application of laws designed to protect the health of human beings and productivity of the ecological systems on which all human activity, economic activity included, depends. ## Environmental Ethics at Individual Level As human populations and economic activity continue to grow, we are facing a number of environmental problems that threaten not only human health and the productivity of ecosystems, but in some cases, the very habitability of the globe. We have to recognize that each of us is individually responsible for the quality of the environment we live in and that. our personal actions affect environmental quality, for better or worse. Our environmental ethics must begin to express itself not only in national laws, but also in subtle but profound changes in the ways we all live our daily lives. It appears that many individuals want the environment cleaned up, but they do not want to make major life-style changes to make that happen. ## Global Environmental Ethics This new sense of urgency and common cause about the environment is leading to unprecedented cooperation in some areas. Ecological degradation in any nation almost inevitably impinges on the quality of life in others. For years, acid rain has been a major irritant' in relations between the United States and Canada. ## Conclusion Will the nations of the world be able to put aside their political differences to work towards a global environmental course of action? Out of that international conference was born the U.N. Environment Programme, a separate department of the United Nations that deals with environmental issues. Through organizations such as this, nations can work together to solve common environmental problems. Deep ecologists, on the other hand, see humankind itself as the main problem. They believe that the earth is a complex organism with its own needs, metabolism; and immune system, and that humankind's relationship with the earth is increasingly parasitic. In the book, *Deep Ecology: Living Nature: As If Nature Mattered*, proponents Bill Devall and George Sessions, clearly state their principles: 1. Humans have no right to reduce the richness and diversity of life except to satisfy vital needs 2. The quality of human life and culture is compatible with a substantial decrease in the human population; 3. The flourishing of non-human life requires such a decrease. To secure for current and future generations a safe and healthy environment, a sound and prosperous economy should aim at: 1. Ensure' that citizens today and tomorrow have the clean air, water, and land essential to sustaining human health and the environment. 2. Protect and enhance, the quality of water resources and promote the wise and efficient use of water. 3. Maintain and enhance the health and diversity of the wildlife and planets. 4. Develop an environmentally literate society. ## Climate Change ## Introduction The recent interest in global warming and sustainable development has become a global talk. The most important global environmental topics as chosen by a panel of about 12 world experts were human population growth, bio-diversity and conservation, climate change, forest decline, hazardous wastes, land degradation, human pathogens, urban environment, work environment and resource depletion. Man is as closely related to nature as he is to himself, because he is a part of it. An outright dependence on nature has been a striking feature of man's progress through the centuries of his struggle. Climate has from the very beginning regulated man in practically every aspect of life and has played a very important role' in the development of civilizations all around the world. Man's impact on climate began 5000 to 9000 years ago, as he was able to alter the environment by burning and felling forest and tilling the earth. The most extensive change wrought by man prior to our own times was the gradual conversion of most of the temperate forest zone to crops, that is an artificial steppe or savanna. Thus until the industrial revolution and probably until the present century, man had little effect on the climate except on a very local scale. Presently global warming has emerged as one of the most important environmental issues ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday activities may be leading to changes in the earth's atmosphere that have the potential to significantly alter the planet's heat and radiation balance, and thereby lead to a warmer climate in the next century and thereafter. International efforts to address this problem have been on for the last decade, with the Earth Summit at Rio' in 1992 as an important launching point and the Conference of Parties in Buenos Aires. In 1998, as the most recent step. Although India, as a developing country, does not have any commitments' or responsibilities at present for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (*CO₂*) that lead to global warming, pressure is increasing on India and other large, rapidly developing countries, such as China and Brazil, to adopt a more pro-active role. ## What is Climate Change? Climate change is a newcomer to the international political and environmental agenda, having emerged as a major policy issue only in the late 1980s and thereafter. It has emerged since the 19th century that *CO₂* in the atmosphere is a 'greenhouse gas', that is, its presence in the atmosphere helps to retain' the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby increasing the earth's surface temperature. Of course, *CO₂* is only one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapour. However, *CO₂* is the most important greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities. *CO₂* is generated by a multitude of processes. Since the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil fuels increased dramatically, the contribution of *CO₂* from human activities has grown large enough to constitute a significant perturbation of the natural carbon cycle. The concentration of *CO₂* in the Earth's atmosphere was about 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution began. By 1994, it was 358 ppmv and rising by about 1.5 ppnw per year. If emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial level, by the end of the 21st century. ## Rising Concentrations The effect is that the atmosphere retains more of the Sun's heat, warming the Earth's surface. While the pattern of future warming is very much open to debate, it is indisputable that the surface of the Earth has warmed, on average, 0.3 to 0.6 °C since the late 19th century when reliable temperature measurements began. Under the existing scenarios of economic growth and development leading to greenhouse gas emissions, on a worldwide average, temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5 °C by the year 2100, and global mean sea level by about 15 to 95 cm. It is likely that changes of this magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and managed ecosystems. Indeed, for many low-lying and deltaic areas and small islands, a sea level rise of one meter could threaten complete Joss of land and extinction of habitation. ## Extreme Weather Events In addition, most of the ill effects of climate change are linked to extreme weather events, such as hot or cold spells of temperature, or wet or dry spells of rainfall, or cyclones and floods. Predictions of the nature and distributions of such events in a changed climate are even more uncertain, to the extent that virtually no authoritative predictions exist at al. While there are costs as well as benefits associated with climate change, the scientific consensus is clearly that the overall effects are likely to pose a significant burden on the global community. Unlike many other environmental issues, such as local air or water pollution, or even stratospheric ozone depletion caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), global warming poses special challenges due to the spatial and temporal extent of the problem, covering the globe and with decades to centuries-time scales. ## Analysis and assessment of just what steps needed to be taken to limit greenhouse gas emissions. This process resulted in the negotiation of a protocol, the final details of which were completed at the third meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention held December 1-12, 1997, in Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change commits industrialized nations to specific, legally binding emission reduction targets for six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, per-fluorinated compounds and sulphur hex fluoride. First, although India does not currently have any obligations' under the Convention to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. It is important for us to develop a clear understanding of our emission inventory. We also need to document and analyze our efforts in areas such as renewable energy, wasteland development and afforestation, all of which contribute towards either reducing CO₂ emissions or increasing CO₂ removal from the atmosphere. Considering that these efforts may often be undertaken for a variety of reasons not directly related to global warming, but yet has benefits as far as climate change is concerned, we may be able to leverage such efforts in the international context. The Research community could contribute substantially in this regard. We need to significantly improve our ability to plan and adapt to extreme events such as floods, droughts, cyclones and other meteorological hazards. Any robustness that we build into the system in this regard will always stand us in good stead no matter what climate change actually transpires. ## Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect In the late 1900s, researchers realized that the world may be getting warmer. The last two decades of the 1900s witnessed some warm and cool years. However, not enough evidences were available to support the theory of global warming. But this is a well-known fact that accumulation of several green house gases can lead to a rise in temperature (global warming). If a global warming phenomenon sets in, this would result in major changes in the world's climate. The increase in temperature might lead to melting of snow on poles, which would terrifically add to ocean waters. Hence the level of seas and oceans would rise. This would largely affect the coastal areas. These would submerge under coastal Waters due to expansion of seas and oceans. Besides the Temperate climate pattern would shift northward and present temperate regions would become hot & dry. ## The Greenhouse Effect The Greenhouse Effect is a natural phenomenon that plays a central role in determining the earth's climate. The hot surface of the sun radiates heat and light energy. Several gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb infrared radiation. These allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and be absorbed by the earth's surface. This energy, is again radiated as heat energy, which is absorbed by the gases. As the effect is similar in nature to what happens in a 'botanical greenhouse' (glass panes that allow light energy to enter inside but diminishes the loss of heat), these gases are called greenhouse gases, and the resultant warming from their increase is called the greenhouse effect. Anthropogenic activities' add to the phenomenon accelerating greenhouse gas building process. Global increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, viz., carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons are now well documented. In addition to all these changes, troposphere and stratospheric chemistry are being modified due to the addition of these gases as well as emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and other compounds. The United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation in 1989 have documented the increase of the different green house gases. | Sl.No. | Gas | Contribution to global warming | |---|---|---| | 1 | Carbon dioxide | 57 | | 2 | Chlorofluorocarbons | 25 | | 3 | Methane | 12 | | 4 | Nitrous oxide | 6 | The concentration of *carbon dioxide* into the atmosphere has increased by 25% since the industrial revolution. Carbon dioxide is increasing at a rate of about 0.4% per year and is responsible for about half of the current increases in the greenhouse effect. The concentration of *methane* has more than doubled during the last three centuries. Agricultural sources, particularly rice cultivation, and animal husbandry has probably been the most significant contributors to historical increase in concentrations. But there is the potential for rapid growth in emissions from landfills, coal seems, permafrost, natural gas explorations, and pipeline leakage, and biomass burning associated with forest clearings' in the future. The concentrations' of *nitrous oxide* have increased by 5-10% since pre-industrial times. The cause of this increase is highly uncertain, but it has been understood that the use of nitrogenous fertilizer, land clearing, biomass burning, and fossil fuel combustion have all contributed. Nitrous oxide is currently increasing at a rate of about 0.25% per year, which represents and imbalance between sources and sinks of about 30%. CFC's were introduced into_ the atmosphere for the first time during the century; the most common species are CFC-12 and CFC-II. Of major concern because of their potential to deplete stratospheric ozone, the CFCs also represent about 15% of the current increases in the greenhouse effect. The chemistry of the atmosphere is changing due to emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds, among other species, in addition to the changes in the greenhouse gases already described. This alters the amount and distribution of ozone and the oxidizing power of the atmosphere, which changes the lifetimes of methane and other greenhouse gases. Changes in global ozone are quite uncertain, and may have contributed to an increase or decrease in the warming commitment during the last decade. ## Acid Rain Although the phenomenon of "acid rain"(more correctly *acid deposition*) was identified in Manchester, England, as long ago as 1852, and described more thoroughly in 1872, modern scientific research has been going on only since the mid-1950s. Public concern about the problem began in the late 1960s. Acid rain is an environmental hazard that is transponder in nature. Northeastern America, North Western Europe and India are facing an acute problem of acid rain. Acid rain has affected certain rivers, lakes, streams and forests in United Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA), Germany and many' other countries.. *Acid rain* literally means 'the presence of excessive acids in rain waters'. Acid precipitation is a mixture of strong mineral acids sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄), nitric acid (HNO₃) and in some locations, hydrochloric acid (HCl). It usually has a pH of less than 5.6, the value of distilled water in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide. ## Acid in the Rain Water's Acid rain problem is a result of anthropogenic activities. Most acids come from cars, homes, industries, and power stations, but some share is contributed by natural sources, such as volcanoes, swamps, and planktons'. The acid problem is basically associated with the transport and subsequent deposition of oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, and their oxidative products. These are produced by combustion of fossil fuels, power plants, automobile exhausts and domestic fires etc. ## Formation of Acid Rain Acid rain is one of the forms of acid deposition which can either be wet or dry, acid rain, snow, dew, fog, frost, and mist are the wet forms of deposition, while dust particles containing sulphate and nitrates which settle on ground is called dry deposition. ## Wet Acid Rain Coal, fuel wood, or petroleum products have sulfur and nitrogen. These elements, when' burnt in atmospheric oxygen, are converted into their respective oxides (SO₂ and NO₃), which are highly soluble in water. By anthropogenic and by natural sources, oxides' of sulfur and nitrogen enter the atmosphere.