Unit 4: Conservative vs. Radical Theories PDF

Conservative vs. Radical Theories\ Population size and change play such a fundamental role in human societies that they have\ been the subject of theorizing for millennia. Most religious traditions have had something to\ say on these matters, as did many of the leading figures of the ancient world.\...

Conservative vs. Radical Theories\ Population size and change play such a fundamental role in human societies that they have\ been the subject of theorizing for millennia. Most religious traditions have had something to\ say on these matters, as did many of the leading figures of the ancient world.\ Conservative Theories\ **1. Malthusian Theory\ **Thomas Malthus (1776-1834)- Clergyman, Demographer and Economist maintained the idea\ that there is a natural law of population growth in which food production increases only\ linearly (1, 2, 3, 4, 5...etc.) and population rises geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,...etc.).\ Therefore population growth tends to outstrip food supply resulting in poverty and hunger --\ (a situation often described as the Malthusis crisis). In his \'Essay on the Principle of Population,\ Malthus (1798) wrote "the cause to which I allude is the constant tendency in all animated\ life to increase beyond the nourishment prepared for it\".\ Malthus suggested that a number of \'checks\' would serve to keep the population at a level\ of subsistence (i.e., food supply ceiling). These, are the \'preventive checks\' and the \'positive\ checks\'. Preventive Checks: The key preventive check suggested by Malthus was one of \'moral\ restraint\'. Men should attempt to marry late in life as this would give rise to fewer or smaller\ families.\ Positive Checks: The positive check, according to Malthus, includes every cause which in\ any degree contributes to shorten the natural duration of human life. These are diverse and\ range from poor living and working conditions that might lower resistance to disease, as well\ as disease itself, wars and famines.\ Malthus's pessimistic view of population suggests that human suffering and misery is inevitable,\ essentially due to population levels exceeding food availability.\ Malthus believe that the main cause of high population growth rates lies in the fast breeding\ of the lower classes that need to adhere to a preventive check.\ 2. Neo-Malthusianism\ One of the most commonly held views in contemporary thinking on population is NeoMalthusianism as derived from the arguments of Malthus.\ The Neo-Malthusians' view follows the thinking of Malthus in that population growth is\ considered the main cause of poverty. However, unlike Malthus, they see birth control as a\ means of checking this growth.\ Not only do Neo-Malthusians believe that a reduction in population will reduce social\ problems and alleviate human suffering, but they also see such steps leading to economic\ growth and improvements in living conditions.\ An essential feature of the Neo-Malthusian argument, therefore, is the belief that the size\ of the population is the main cause of limitations to development, particularly in the less\ developed countries and that high population growth leads to high natural resource depletion\ and causes environmental degradation.\ This demographic deterministic view of poverty, underlie most debate and discussions on\ population since the 1960s. It is the 'people versus resources' viewpoint held by many\ academics, demographers and commentators who all believe that there are too many people\ for the available resources.\ Neo-Malthusians see the rapid rates of population growth in the developing countries resulting\ in widespread poverty, economic stagnation, environmental destruction, rapid urbanization,\ unemployment and political instability.\ Like Malthus, the Neo-Malthusians see the problem resting with the poor who produce more\ children, because of their ignorance and lack of foresight. The solution, therefore, lies in\ persuading (or forcing if needs be) the poor to have fewer children.\ It is against this background that the implementation and promotion of family planning\ programmes by international development agencies gained popularity as an efficient and\ cost-effective way to tackle the problems of development.\ Evidence of Malthus and Neo-Malthusian predictions\ Neo-Malthusians would argue that the recurrent famine in countries such as Ethiopia and\ Somalia is proof of a positive check on population growth.\ Critics\ Critics of Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian perspective on population have argued that the\ demographic deterministic view of poverty is fundamentally defective.\ First, Neo-Malthusian arguments divert attention from the social and economic causes of poverty.\ Like Malthus, they simply blame human reproduction. The structure of underdevelopment is\ ignored, with the reproductive customs of developing countries people considered the main\ cause of their poverty.\ Second, some critics argue that for those who saw the lower classes as a burden to society;\ Malthus and Neo-Malthusian view provides a perfect excuse not to improve their living\ conditions. They maintain that it is the failure of successive development strategies to bring\ about any appreciable improvement in the living conditions of the majority of the people of\ the world that needs to be discussed and not the productive habits of the poor.\ Third, contrary to Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian predictions, world food production has\ increased more rapidly than that of population. The fact that many countries have stores\ suggest that it is the distribution of food resources, rather than a lack of, that is the key issue.\ Fourth, many developing nations are now challenging the Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian\ perspectives on population and reclaiming their right to identify for themselves what they\ perceived their particular population problems are and how to resolve them without pressure\ from external agencies.\ Fifth, there is a growing realization amongst development experts that population growth is\ NOT the cause of the development problems of the developing countries, but rather a symptom\ of the problems. New understanding and explanation of fertility rates in economically poor\ communities suggests that poor people may have many children for logical reasons, such as\ their economic value, and not just because they are backward-looking.\ Sixth, both Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian views on population in relation to development\ are ethnocentric in nature. They both, implicitly, evaluate the reproductive behavior of people\ in the developing countries by criteria specific to western Europeans. When the rich nations\ suffer economic difficulties such as rising unemployment, these are treated as purely economic\ issues. However, when a developing country experiences obstacles to economic growth, then\ population pressure is often cited as the cause.\ Conclusion on Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian\ The Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian view has dominated academic discussion and debate\ on population since the early 1800s. Their perspective on population and resources has had\ a profound effect on the way population policy is formulated, especially in the developing\ world. It has helped in the formulation and implementation of family planning programmes,\ and helped highlight concern over development problems.\ However, the Neo-Malthusian approach which essentially argues for direct population control\ measures alongside development policies is filled with many difficulties. Not only does it\ divert academic attention away from arguably the most fundamental causes of poverty in the\ Third World, it also ignores the unequal distribution of global resources. At best, it fails to\ address the excessive pattern of resource consumption and waste by the 20% of the world\'s\ population who consume 80% of the earth\'s resources and instead blame the poor for being\ poor and for having large families.\ Radical Theories\ Ester Boserup's Hypothesis\ Ester Boserup - a Danish Economists offered an entirely different view on population resource\ debate. In her book 'The Conditions of Agricultural Growth' published in 1965, Boserup took\ an empirical approach to the relationship between population growth and food production\ rather than Malthus's deductive approach (i.e., reasoned by calculations).\ Unlike Malthus, she believes that population growth is a major factor determining agricultural\ developments. According to her, 'population growth stimulates innovation and development\ in agriculture' thus causing an increase in food production. This is summed up by the following\ phrase '\...Necessity is the mother of invention'. This suggests that an increase in population\ provides a major incentive for ways to be found to increase food production.\ PBoserup\'s main argument can be summarised as follows:\ „ There is a connection between population and technology. Population change is\ one of the determinants of technological change, and technological change is a\ determinant of demographic change.\ „ The increase in population pressure stimulates changes in the agricultural system.\ Rising population leads to intensification of farming methods in order to produce\ the extra food for the extra numbers.\ „ The pressure to change agricultural production by modifying farming techniques\ and frequencies with which a plot of land is cultivated come from demand for\ increased food production\ „ The sustained growth of population and agricultural output has secondary effects,\ which will set off a genuine process of economic growth\ „ All parts of the world have experienced these changes owing to the increase in\ population density\ The conclusion from Boserup\'s hypothesis is that population growth naturally leads to\ development rather than being a hindrance to it. Boserup\'s idea is based upon field studies in\ SE Asia, and she developed her idea under a number of assumptions\ Critics of Ester Boserup\'s Hypothesis\ Boserup\'s idea has been criticised for having a rather weak economic basis and her idea\ applies only to the agricultural production of mainly the developing world where the number\ of people depends on agriculture. As an area becomes more industraialised and developed,\ conditions of inadequate food production are much more likely to result in out-migration\ rather than agricultural innovation.\ Her theory, according to some critics, fails to discuss the most recent technological innovations\ in the highly industrailised societies. Also critics have argue, her idea lacks any universal\ appeal because it is based on the assumption of an unsophisticated economies and 'closed'\ communities. In reality, communities are not closed instead; there is constant in- and outmigration. Relatively few communities, if any, operate closed systems producing food only to\ meet their own requirements. So, it is generally difficult to test her ideas.\ Boserup's hypothesis gives no consideration to the qualitative aspects of diet and nutrition.\ Through the changes in agricultural techniques suggested by Boserup, it is possible that output\ may increase but the overall quality of diet and nutrition may decline.\ Another criticism of Boserup\'s hypothesis relates to the time that the agricultural adaptation\ would take place. The innovation in agriculture cannot be presumed to occur immediately.\ If the population growth is rapid, it may overwhelm the agricultural system in the process of\ adjustment such that the necessary adjustments do not have time to occur.\ It is clear that certain types of fragile environment cannot support excessive numbers of people.\ In such cases, population pressure may not lead to technological innovation as Boserup\ suggested.\ Boserup herself admits that over-population can lead to unsuitable farming practices which\ may degrade the land. And she also recognises that in certain physical environments, continuing intensification of production may not be possible with rising population pressures.\ In spite of Boserup\'s hypothesis, two major food problems persist in the world today - massive\ surpluses in the developed world and famine, starvation and shortage in the developing world.\ It appears, therefore, that it is not the level of resources which is the main cause of concern\ but the inability to share and distribute available resources equitably amongst the world\'s\ population.\ Julian Simon - The \'Ultimate Resource\' Theory\ Julian Simon (1932-1997), a US economist and statistician, made a significant contribution to\ the population versus resources debate. Unlike Malthus and Neo-Malthusians, Simon presents\ a radical optimistic theory to the whole debate.\ Simon believes that population growth is not necessarily a bad thing, suggesting the ultimate\ resource is the people. He believes people are able to innovate to sustain themselves.\ According to Simon, "the most important benefit of population size and growth is the increase\ it brings to the stock of useful knowledge. Minds matter economically as much as, or more\ than hands or mouths".\ Simon believes that despite claims by neo-Malthusians that natural resources are finite with\ population growth, natural resources are not finite in any economic sense, which is why their\ cost can continue to fall.\ In spite of the 'doom and gloom' of the Malthusian theory, Simon suggested the world food\ production has increased in both developed and developing countries since the World War\ II. According to him, the overall trend from 1948-1979 shows there has been an increase in\ food production per person.\ Simon believes that food shortages and famines are caused by politics as the political regime\ of a country affects food production. According to Simon, any country that gives farmers a free\ market in food and labor secure property rights in the land and a political system that ensures\ these freedoms in the future will soon flush with food with an ever diminishing proportion of\ its workforce required to produce food.\ Simon blames the West for destroying the developing countries farmers despite the assistance\ they give the developing countries in terms of technical shipments of food, by giving subsidies to their own farmers which raise food production artificially and hence reduce the world\ prices.\ Simon believes that subsidies to Western farmers go hand in hand with the policies of African\ governments which steal from their farmers by forcing them to accept below market prices.\ The Marxian Perspective\ Karl Marx (1818-1883) maintained that poverty and resource depletion is not a consequence\ of population growth but of unequal distribution of resources between classes.\ Where ownership of and control over resources is confined to a capitalist or land owning\ class, potential always exists for poverty and hunger. Peasants and working poor have very little\ bargaining power compared to landlords and capitalists hence poverty and hunger results.\ According to Marx, capitalism creates surplus population through: physical separation of\ producers (peasants, artisans, workers) by landowners from their means of production (land,\ machinery, tools etc.)\ He also suggests that the destruction of traditional methods of farming and production\ through mechanization and changes in land usage and tenure are ways the capitalist rich class\ makes the working class poor.\ The result is the total reliance on wage labor by the poor to acquire means of consumption\ (food, clothing, shelter, etc.). According to Marx, poverty occurs, not because of overpopulation,\ but rather through lack of access to means of gaining subsistence.\ After completing this section the student will be able to:\ „ analyze the effectiveness of population policies in developing countries; and\ „ examine the different population policies used by different countries.\ KEY TERMS: Anti-natal, Pro-natal, Policy, Family planning, Contraceptives?\ A population policy is a policy that is formulated and implemented by a government in order to plan and control population growth, spatial distribution and structure based on the\ economic, social, cultural, political, and demographic conditions of the country. It is needed\ mainly to address population- related problems in a country.\ The population policies of countries can be broadly categorized into two groups as: anti-natalist and pro-natalist policies. Both reflect the fact that while individual women and families\ ultimately control fertility, the state can play a pivotal role in providing or prohibiting access\ to reproductive health, family planning and other resources associated with fertility behavior.\ These influences of the state and their policies can directly target fertility or more indirectly\ shape the broader relational contexts of fertility geographies.\ Pro-natalist policies\ Pro-natalist population policy seeks to increase fertility rates, in particular, and population\ growth rates, in general. Pro-natalists seek to incentivize increased fertility. They have a long\ historical pedigree and have been adopted by numerous countries, notwithstanding the civil\ liberties issues they can raise. While no single policy appears most effective, such policies do\ appear to influence fertility rates.\ Within Europe, some countries (notably Germany, France, Sweden, Italy and Spain) had pronatalist policies in place as early as the 1930s but by the turn of the present century around\ 88 countries provided incentives for women to have children.\ In general, besides explicit exhortation and propaganda, pro-natalism is usually expressed in\ policies embracing welfare issues. It comes through, for example, in schemes that facilitate\ women leaving the paid labor force, grant mothers significant maternity pay, or provide\ substantial support for child caring mothers. For example, the French government worked to\ increase birth rates through such measures as the 1939 Family Code, provision of social and\ family benefits such as birth premiums, loans to young married couples, and housing subsidies.\ Many policies and the socio-cultural environments they support work more indirectly in\ promoting fertility than explicit pro-natalist policies. For example, acknowledging factors\ linked to fertility, governments may seek to ensure greater equality within the workplace and\ a reduction of the burden of family-work responsibilities by creating more flexible working\ hours, child care assistance, tax incentives, family allowances or low cost housing loans. Such\ policies can make having a child more economically feasible; highly relevant when noting the\ high average "cost" of raising a child. In support of this, an Austrian study found increases in\ parental leave increased fertility.\ Pro-natalist policies may also be motivated by concerns about dependency consequences\ of an ageing society of low fertility. As noted, earlier governments may respond through\ facilitating immigration. Since much of the world's population is still young, working-age\ immigrants from the Global South, in particular, can potentially provide both needed workers\ for countries with declining populations as well as increased fertility rates on account of their\ demographic concentration within the child-bearing years. Such policies, however, are likely\ to be extremely politically sensitive.\ Anti-natalist policies\ Anti-natalist population policy seeks to lower fertility rates, in particular, and population\ growth rates, in general. countries may enact anti-natalist policies designed to reduce fertility.\ In fact, some countries have alternated between pro- and anti-natalist policies.\ The most well-known anti-natalist attempt to reduce fertility has been China's "one child"\ policy. When the country breakdown the campaign to promote birth control in the 1950s saw\ China's TFR shoot up to over 6.0 by the early 1960s. After completing this section you will be able to:\ „ analyze measures taken to curb the growth rate of population;\ „ explain international movements related to population control; and\ „ discuss the different examples of population control from various cultures.\ KEY TERMS: Child Tax , Contraception, Infant Mortality Decrease, One-child policies,\ Family planning, Consumption in wealthy countries, Rapid population growth\ In response to the fear of population growing out of hand and outgripping available resources\ as predicted by Malthus, there had been a number of national, regional and international\ initiatives aimed at slowing down the world fast-growing population.\ In the 1970s, so great was the concern over the world's population expansion that a World\ Population Conference was held in Bucharest (1974), in which 136 countries agreed to a\ World Population Plan of Action. This plan highlighted the need "\...to introduce family planning\ programmes and to reduce rates of population growth in order to conserve resources and\ improve standards of living", particularly in the less developed countries.\ Ever since the Bucharest conference, the link between population growth and development\ has become even more direct. In 1994, there was an International Conference on Population\ and Development in Cairo which aimed at "linking population more effectively to core\ development agendas".\ Global population is increasing by about 1.5 percent per year, a growth rate (should it persist)\ that in less than half a century will double the number of people who live on the planet. On\ the other hand, modern medical techniques are producing life extension but not healthy life\ extension, and we are seeing numbers of old and chronically sick or disabled elderly people\ in increasingly longer economically unproductive retirements, who need consequentially\ increasing numbers of younger people to support them.\ The ability of the Earth to sustain the human population, posed by Malthus over 200 years\ ago, is a serious question. Dependence on finite resources for energy and water is already\ threatening international stability. Potentially exponential population growth can only make\ matters worse. Improving economic development in the most populous countries of the\ developing world is leading to changing patterns of demand, as people seek more affluent\ lifestyles. Food and energy demands are increasing faster than had been predicted. Air quality\ resulting from over-rapid industrialisation is becoming a major problem that will have major\ public health effects. The likely determinants of climate change, usually attributed to the\ developed nations, are now spread throughout the developing world, making the ability of\ nations to achieve the targets signed-up to at Kyoto unlikely to be achieved.\ International Moves\ In 1994 the United Nations Population Information Network (POPIN) organised an International Conference of Parliamentarians on Population and Development (ICPPD) and an\ International Conference of Parliamentarians on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo.\ There was a shift in thinking recognised at Cairo, towards viewing population from a more\ humane and equitable perspective. The consensus document that was produced recognises\ that consumption in wealthy countries and rapid population growth in poor countries put\ pressure on the natural environment, both locally and globally.\ Rather than simply equating population policy with family planning, the new thinking is that\ population growth should be stabilised - and development enhanced - by attacking some\ of the roots of the problem: by improving women's access to education, health care, and\ economic and political decisions.\ Today, more than half of all developing countries have national population policies, and\ about 130 national governments subsidize family planning services. When polled by the UN\ in 1994, 91 percent of the countries that lacked national population policies stated that\ they intended to formulate them in the near future, reflecting a rising global commitment to\ population-related concerns. But national policy statements do not necessarily translate into\ program implementation. Child tax: Higher taxation for parents with more children is one of the methods that can be\ used to control the population. This method of population control ensures that tax payers are\ entitled to an exemption for a specified number of children (mostly first two) but no other.\ Family Planning: the idea of family planning highly related to access to safe, voluntary means\ of planning a family that is taken as human right issue. Family planning is central to gender\ equality and women's empowerment, and it is a key factor in reducing poverty. Yet in developing\ regions, women who want to avoid pregnancy are not using safe effective family planning\ methods. This is because of lack of access to information or ervices and lack of support from\ their partners or communitie This threatens their ability to build a better future for themselves,\ their families and their communities.\ contraception as one of the family planning mechanisms is the most popular population\ control method in the world. It is a method used to prevent pregnancy. There are several\ methods of contraception or birth control. Some of the methods are irreversible while others\ are temporary.\ **One child policy:** The one-child policy was an official initiative of the Chinese central government that was implemented in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The initiative's goal was to\ prohibit the vast majority of family units in the country from having more than one child each.\ The policy's implementation was justified by the need to slow China's massive population\ increase. It was announced in late 2015 that the program's execution would end in early 2016.\ Examples from various cultures\ China has operated a one-child policy for a number of years, enforced though a system of\ fines, relaxed after mass bereavements such as Sichuan Earthquake; the focus of China on\ population control helped to provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the\ risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive\ free contraception and pre-natal classes. Help is provided for pregnant women to closely\ monitor their health.\ India has greatly increased food production per head over last 20 years, making it better placed\ to absorb higher numbers. The country's most recent approach to population issues focuses\ on the advancement of women economically, academically, and socially, as independent\ women are more likely to have small families.\ Africa: birth rates in Africa are the highest in the world. By the year 2050, twenty percent of the\ world's population will live on the African continent. That will be almost two thousand million\ people, up from eight hundred fifty-five million people today. Especially large population\ growth is expected in Nigeria, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.\ Other countries likely to have major growth include Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Somalia and\ Uganda. Kenya was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to view runaway population growth\ as a serious impediment to economic prosperity, and it became the first, in the late 1960s,\ to begin developing a national family-planning campaign. The country\'s official population\ policy calls for matching population size with available resources, yet leaves decisions on\ family size up to individual families.\ As recently as 1970, Africa was essentially self-sufficient in food. What fostered a breakdown\ in the continent\'s ability to feed itself has been a decline of nearly 1 percent per year in per\ capita grain production since 1968 - in part due to an annual population growth for the\ continent approaching 3 percent.\ The root cause of Africa\'s crisis is population growth faster than any other continent in\ history, widespread soil erosion and desertification, and a failure by African governments to\ adequately support agriculture.\ The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), committed to by all 191 United Nations\ member states, are rooted in the concept of sustainable development. Although 2007\ (midway) reports indicated that programs are under way, unfortunately many countries are\ unlikely to reach their goals due to high levels of poverty.\ The population is often considered as a source of economic, military, and political strength.\ However, a high population (overpopulation) can also be considered a threat to the\ environment and resources. However, population growth is a factor that can be managed.\ Human population planning is a means of intentionally controlling the human population\ growth. Challenges of Population Control\ Although population control is largely supported by many people, some of the methods used\ have been contested. Some religious groups are against the use of contraceptives and other\ population control methods.\ According to the countries' policy direction for regulating population growth, expanding\ access to high-quality reproductive health care, including for safe and effective methods of\ family planning, may help reduce fertility and hasten economic and social development. Yet,\ some of the significant obstacles connected to the execution of policy direction are:\ „ availability of facilities/equipment\ „ awareness\ „ language barrier\ „ effectiveness of family planning method\ „ accessibility of family planning services\ „ cultural acceptance\ „ religious acceptance\ „ wife/ Husband's acceptanceeconomic Development\ After completing this section, you will be able to:\ „ explain the link between population growth and socio-economic development;\ „ differentiate the economic and environmental implications of population growth;\ „ explain the relationship and effects of health on development;\ „ distinguish the widely used measures of economic development;\ „ investigate the limitations of economic development; and\ „ examine the social indicators of development. The Concept of Development\ What is development? How do you relate sustainability with development?\ Development is a difficult concept to define. The term development means different things to\ different people. Therefore, possible definitions include a wide range of elements. What do you understand from Figure 4.2? How do you relate development with the terms\ noted in each box of Figure 4.2? Despite the complexity of the issue, we have some definitions\ that can go well with the term development. Development is a process by which members of a\ society increase their personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources\ to produce sustainable improvements in their quality of life.\ The most recent definition of development: Development represents the whole package of\ change by which an entire social system moves away from a condition of life perceived as\ unsatisfactory towards a situation or condition of life that is materially and spiritually better\ (Todaro and Smith, 2009:) What are the main points included in the definition? Can you explain them briefly? What are\ the main objectives of development in any society?\ Development in any society must have at least the following three objectives: III\. To expand the range of economic and social choices.\ What should be done to accomplish the above objectives?\ Can you mention some of the efforts made in your locality?\ Generally, economic development strategies should give due attention to increasing the\ productive capacities of human wealth and the health of the environment. This is done by\ concentrating on the following: Indicators of development are measures of development in a given country. The most common\ indicators used to measure countries development are discussed as follows:\ Gross Domestic Product (GDP)\ The GDP is a measure of the market value of commodities. It is the total value of currently\ produced final goods and services within a country's borders, usually in a year, irrespective\ of who owns the outputs. In developing countries, the GDP is not only low, but it is also\ dominated by primary commodities. On the other hand, secondary and tertiary economic\ activities contribute to the biggest shares to the GDP in the developed countries.\ The GNP is the total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, including\ incomes secured from abroad, through varied activities.\ Per-Capita Income\ How can the per-capita income of a country be measured?\ Per capita income or total income measures the average income earned per person in a given\ area in a specified year. It is calculated by dividing the country's total income by its total\ population. Per capita income is national income divided by population size. of course as a\ measure of peoples' quality of life, it is indicative of their standard of living.\ In the same way as the GDP, per-capita income for developed countries is very high and\ growing. This is the result of ever-increasing GDPs that are based on diversified urban industrial\ and commercial economies. Developing countries, on the other hand, have low per-capita\ incomes, whose bases are primary economy that lack diversification.\ Standard of Living\ Standard of living is the level of income, comforts and services available, generally applied\ to a society or location, rather than to an individual. Standard of living is relevant because it\ is considered to contribute to an individual's quality of life. Standard of living is perhaps the\ best measure of the quality of life of a given society. It is directly related to both the GDP and\ per-capita income. This is because, as the latter get higher, the former improves, and vice versa.\ Developed countries have high and constantly growing living standards, while people of the\ developing world are characterized by low living standards. Based on the above and other\ indicators of development, countries of the world can be classified and named in different\ ways such as rich/poor, developed/ developing, north/south, first/second world, and more\ developed/less developed world. Also, using current development status as a criterion, they\ can be grouped as: developed, less developed and least developed.\ \ The developed countries are the world's richest nations. This is because their economy is\ urban-based, industrial and specialized in commercial activities, supported by sophisticated\ technology and infrastructure (Table 4.2). Less developed countries include the bulk of the\ world's countries, which are found in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. They have traditional\ economic systems, largely based on agriculture, mining or a combination of both. Social development refers to the institutions of societies through which development is\ enhanced: the 'soft' dimensions of development, often invisible and difficult to measure. The\ following are the commonly used indicators: V. Enrollment ratio of girls to boys\ VI. Percentage of population living below poverty line\ VII. Percentage of population with access to sanitation\ Economic Indicators: these are the major type economic measures used at the macro level.\ some of these indicators are:\ 1. GDP/GNP per capita\ 2. Growth rate of GDP\ 3. Growth rate of different sector of the economy\ The above mentioned are the common types of measurements, which were used in many literatures. To construct comprehensive indices, it is necessary to incorporate economic, human,\ social, environmental and other related representative indicators. Based on this the following list\ of broader concern of development are designated.\ These indicators may be broadly categorised as:\ A. Indicators of economic development\ B. Indicators of social development\ C. Health and related indicators\ Health and other demographic indicators are:\ I. Life expectancy at birth There are many more indicators depending on the context of study.\ Factors of Economic Development\ The successful development of a country is not easy and not only the duty of the people in\ the society. It combines many factors for the success.\ Economic factors\ i. The natural resources: Natural resources mean everything that occur naturally and which can\ be useful for living and feeding human's need. Natural resources of a country consist of things\ that happen naturally in the country. They facilitates the country to develop itself.\ ii. Capital expenditure: The capital is an essential factor for economic development in both its\ size and forms. It is obvious that if a country has more cumulative capital and uses it efficiently\ for its society and economy, it makes the country gain more advantages than that which lacks\ the capital.\ iii. Technology: The technology in the production is the measurement on the progress of the\ production. Therefore, technology is the main factor in the expansion of the production which\ affects the gross national economy of a country, and plays a role in the development of the\ economy.\ Non-economic factors\ The society: under this factor we have the following components:\ i. The labor force: It is not a simple resource but capital which is called "human capital". It\ is the most important in the economic development which is planned, implemented and\ beneficially received by human.\ ii. The Social value: Value of the people in a society comprises social, ethical and political\ values. It facilitates the rapid development of the economy and makes more progress on the\ development.\ iii. The religion and Tradition: Although any religion teaches people to do good. it also has an\ impact on the value of people in society which may possibly contribute or block the socio-economy development.\ iv. The Political stability: A country of political stability has no antagonistic conflict, no\ controversy between countries. People contribute to the government policies. Those facilitate\ the development because the domestic and international investors are interested in the\ investment which in turn provides the jobs for the people bringing incomes to the country.\ Social implications of population growth\ Rapid population growth in less developed countries is linked to many problems, including\ poverty, hunger, high infant mortality and inadequate social services and infrastructure\ (transportation, communication etc.).\ Figure 4.3: Estimated and projected population of the world\ Rapid population growth may intensify the hunger problem in the most rapidly growing\ countries. Population growth can reduce or eliminate food production gains resulting from\ modernization of farming. Population pressures may also encourage practices, such as over\ irrigation and overuse of crop lands, which undermine the capacity to feed larger numbers. In\ some cases population growth is quite directly related to a social problem because it increases\ the absolute numbers whose needs must be met. For example some less developed countries\ have made enormous progress in increasing the percentage of children enrolled in school.\ However, because of population growth during the same period, the number of children who\ are not enrolled in school also increased because there were insufficient resources to meet\ the growing need.\ Similar observations could be made about jobs and employment, housing, sanitation and other\ human needs such as water supply, transportation, energy requirement etc. These problems are\ compounded when large numbers migrate from rural to urban areas and increase the burden\ placed on already inadequate supplies and services.\ Population growth and environment\ The relationship between population growth and environmental degradation may appear to\ be rather straight forward. More people demand more resources and generate more waste.\ Clearly, one of the challenges of a growing population is the mere presence of so many people\ sharing a limited number of resources strains the environment.. Relationship between Population and Environmental Health\ After completing this section you will be able to\ „ explain the relationship between population and environmental health\ „ describe the global essence of environmental health\ „ discuss the principles related to environmental health\ Concept of Environmental Health\ "In its broadest sense, environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, disease,\ and injury that are determined or influenced by factors in the environment. This includes not\ only the study of the direct pathological effects of various chemical, physical, and biological\ agents, but also the effects on health of the broad physical and social environment, which\ includes housing, urban development, land-use and transportation, industry, and agriculture."\ (Healthy People 2010).\ Environmental health can be defined as the interconnection between people and their environment by which human health and non-polluted environment are sustained.\ Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that\ are determined by physical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the environment. It\ also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing those\ factors in the environment that can potentially affect adversely the health of present and future\ generations.\ Environmental Health: The Global Scene\ One of the drivers of the integration of environmental health issues into the overarching notion of sustainable development has been the UN Agenda 21, agreed by governments at the\ 1992 UN Earth Summit. Chapter 6 of Agenda 21 specifically addresses health issues, with five\ key target areas all of which related directly to environmental health priorities.\ These target areas are:\ 1. Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas;\ 2. Controlling communicable diseases;\ 3. Protecting vulnerable groups;\ 4. Meeting the urban health challenge; and\ 5. Reducing health risks from environmental pollution\ The global MDGs and SDGs have given due attention to environmental health in many of\ their goals and targets. Sustainable Development and SDGs reflect the common understanding\ that a healthy environment is integral to the full enjoyment of basic human rights, including\ the rights to life, health, food, water and sanitation, and quality of life.\ Environmental Health Intervention Models\ Basic requirements for a healthy environment are clean air; safe and sufficient water; safe and\ adequate food; safe and peaceful settlements; and stable global environment.\ There are 3 different models used to achieve the environmental health outcomes.\ The first is Clinical Model where by interventions focus on treating disease which has already\ occurred in the population. In most cases, it is an expensive and difficult situation. The second\ model is, Public Health Model, where attempts are made to control disease-causing agents\ which might already have infested the environment and created public health problems. The\ third model is the Environmental Stewardship Model which tries to address environmental\ problems from human activities and natural processes (see Figure 4.4.) Each of the above\ models has its own advantages and limitations.\ Public Disease Death\ Philosophy and principles related to environmental health:\ The philosophical underpinnings and key principles indicate the need to focus on addressing\ environmental health issues.\ Air pollution is the world's largest single environmental risk to health (some 7 million people\ across the world die each year due to everyday exposure to poor air quality), but it cannot be\ viewed in isolation.\ Degradation of the environment, the air we breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink, and\ the ecosystems which sustain us is estimated to be responsible for at least a quarter of the\ global total burden of disease. Environmental degradation is estimated to cause 174-234\ times as many premature deaths as occur in conflicts annually. Disproportionate impacts of\ environmental harms are evident on specific groups: the poor, the young, the elderly, women\ and migrant worker.\ Corona virus (Covid-19), Zika, Ebola, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) , Severe acute\ respiratory syndrome (SARS), Marburg... new zoonotic diseases (spread from animals to\ humans) are currently emerging every four months, with the main drivers being exponential\ population growth, intensive livestock breeding, (there are 36 billion domestic animals on\ the planet) and concomitantly disturbed environments and biodiversity loss. Strengthening\ healthy ecosystems is a key to preventing or slowing the emergence of these costly diseases.\ A key need is for greater investment in integrated surveillance of wildlife, livestock and human\ health.\ The UNEP Healthy Environment, Healthy People report indicates that lack of access to clean\ water and sanitation causes 58 percent of cases of diarrheal diseases in low and middleincome countries.\ There is growing evidence to suggest that exposure to natural environments can be associated\ with mental health benefits. The 2014 epidemiological study has shown that people who move\ to greener urban areas benefit from sustained improvements in their mental health. Proximity\ to green space has been associated with lower levels of stress and reduced symptomology for\ depression and anxiety, while interacting with nature can improve cognition for children with\ attention deficits and individuals with depression.\ Clean air and water, sanitation and green spaces, safe workplaces can enhance people's quality\ of life: reduced mortality and morbidity, healthier lifestyles, improved productivity of workers\ and their families, improve lives of women, children and elderly and are crucial to mental\ health.\ An integrated approach based on evidence of the linkages between poor environmental quality and health, studies identified several priority problem areas for urgent policy attention,\ including:\ 1. Unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene cause mortality,\ morbidity and lost economic productivity (Figure 4.5);\ 2. Nutritionally, poor diet composition and quality, as well as increased physical\ inactivity, has increased the growth of non-communicable diseases throughout\ the world; and\ 3. Degraded ecosystems and stresses to the Earth's natural systems, which reduce\ ecosystem services that support human health, enhance exposure to natural\ disasters, food security, and at times give rise to disease outbreaks.\ Figure 4.5: Diseas Transmission Method\ The findings of reports provide a strong basis for adopting an integrated approach for\ improving human health and well-being through increased engagement by the health sector\ in ecosystem management and decision-making. They also identify integrated actions and\ strategies, such as:\ „ Reduce resource use and change lifestyles: Use fewer resources per unit of\ economic output produced and reduce the environmental impact of any resources\ used in production and consumption activities through more efficient practices.\ „ Enhance ecosystem resilience and protection of the planet's natural systems: Build\ capacity of the environment, economies and societies to anticipate, respond to\ and recover from disturbances and shocks through: agro-ecosystem restoration\ and sustainable farming systems; strengthening ecosystem restoration, in particular\ wetlands, dry land vegetation, coastal zones and watersheds, including through\ reforestation; reducing livestock and logging pressures to increase resilience and\ mitigate extreme weather conditions of storms, drought and floods.\ Addressing the nexus between environment and human health through delivering on environmental sustainability can provide a common platform for meeting\ many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through multiplier effects\ that can accelerate and sustain progress across multiple SDGs, and investing in\ environmental sustainability can serve as an insurance policy for health and human well-being.