Unit 4 Effective TL Strategies PDF

KMS2014 Design & Management of Training Program  UNIT 4 E ective Teaching and Learning Strategies Learning Outcomes At the end of this session, pa icipants will be able to : i. Explain the reasons for conducting a trainability analysis/test ii. Explain ways of arranging training...

KMS2014 Design & Management of Training Program  UNIT 4 E ective Teaching and Learning Strategies Learning Outcomes At the end of this session, pa icipants will be able to : i. Explain the reasons for conducting a trainability analysis/test ii. Explain ways of arranging training so that learning is facilitated iii. Identify and explain the factors that a ects the transfer of training to the work place Introduction What does a trainer need to do to maximize learning? 3 main questions of interest 1 Is the individual trainable? 2 How should the training be arranged to facilitate learning? What can be done to ensure that what was 3 learned during training will be retained and transferred to the job? What does a trainer need to do to maximize learning?  What does a trainer need to do to maximize Principles of learning? Learning eo of Motivation 2 main sources of guidance Principle s of learning eories of motivatio n Trainability Trainability is a function of individual’s ability and motivation (Wexley & Latham, 2002) Trainability (Wexley & Latham, 2002) Abilit y Trainabilit y Motivatio n Ability e extent to which an individual possess aptitude or skills to pe orm the tasks at hand Ability Muscular Coordinatio n Mental Visual Ability Acuity Personality Characteristi c  sociability persuasivene decisiveness ss PERSONALITY self- CHARACTERIST asse iveness con dence ICS  Motivation Internal processes that initiate, guide, and sustain goal- directed behaviors (Deci & Ryan, 2000) Motivation can be intrinsic, originating from personal interest or enjoyment in the task itself, or extrinsic, where actions are driven by external rewards or pressures (Ryan & Deci, 2000). What motivate people to learn? Choose one motivation theo that could explain employees' motivation to learn:  By understanding this theo , how do you motivate your employees to attend a training program? Trainability An individual's ability and readiness to learn and develop new skills through training. Learning Environment  Arrangement of the training environment Learning conditions – external to learner Learning de ned as relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice Variables Needed To Be Considered To Facilitate Learning Conditions of practice Feedback Meaningfulness of the material Individual di erences Behavior modeling Maintaining motivation Conditions of practice Active practice Over-learning Masses vs. distributed practice session Size of the unit to be learned Conditions of practice 1. Active practice – Learner given an oppo unity to practice what is being taught – Early stages of learning skills, trainer should be available to guide practice – to minimise risk of learner develop inappropriate behaviors 2. Over-learning – Provides trainees with continued practice far beyond the point when the task has been pe ormed correctly several times. – Relevant to: Activities that must be practiced under simulated conditions because the real situation is either too expensive or too dangerous Tasks which are designed so that individuals cannot rely on lifelong habit patterns e.g. ce ain emergency procedures Conditions of practice (ctd) Impo ance of over-learning – Increases the length of time training material will be retained – Making learning more re exive – to become automatic – More likely to maintain quality of pe ormance during emergency and added stress – Helps trainees transfer what they have learned during training to job settings Conditions of practice (ctd) 3. Massed vs. Distributed practice sessions – Problem of dividing practice periods into segments OR Plan one continuous session – Decision depends on nature of task to be trained – Possible problem about distributed practice session – management frequently anxious about getting individual trained to standard as quickly as possible – Better for learning motor skills as rest period between practice sessions allow fatigue to dissipate (Hull, 1943) Conditions of practice (ctd) 4. Size of unit to be learned – Issues to consider:  What is the optimum size of the unit to be learned?  Should you attempt to teach the entire task at each practice session?  Is it more e cient in the long run to teach individual subtasks initially and as the trainee sta s mastering each subtask begin the process of combining them? – ree strategies used in scheduling training  Assume that a task can be divided into three distinct pa s or subtasks Conditions of practice (ctd) Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV Whole A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C training Pure-pa A B C A+B+C training Progressive pa A A+B A+B+C A+B+C training  2. Feedback Practice without evaluative feedback retards learning. Feedback (knowledge of results) is critical for both learning and motivation Feedback should be provided as soon as possible after trainee’s behavior Feedback need not be instantaneous but relationship between behavior and feedback must be clearly evident Speci city (amount) of feedback must be appropriate to capabilities Form of Feedback Verbal praise Test scores Productivity repo s Pe ormance measurements Function of Feedback Tells trainees whether their responses were correct Makes learning process more interesting for the trainees Leads to the setting of speci c goals for maintaining or improving pe ormance  Types of Feedback Positive feedback Negative feedback Positive feedback e.g. Is often denied by trainees making praise the with low self esteem due consequence of behavior to unwillingness to accept will usually strengthen that critical comments behavior Positive feedback is Trainees may accept perceived and recalled negative feedback from more accurately and trainers who are perceived accepted more readily as trustwo hy, than negative feedback knowledgeable and powe ul Negative feedback must not be seen as punitive in  Feedback (ctd) Error feedback – Associated with BF Skinner’s work on behavior modi cation - seen as a form of punishment and is disruptive to learning – When associated with Frese & Altmann (1988) error feedback is seen as having positive e ects because one has to learn to deal e ciently with errors on both a strategic and emotional level – training programs need to be designed so that trainees have the oppo unity to make errors, receive feedback on them and encouraged to solve these problems by themselves Intrinsic feedback – Knowledge of feedback from tasks itself E ective learning strategy should include both intrinsic and extrinsic feedback. Feedback – most e ective when it a ects a person’s goals Feedback – works best when it involves simultaneous behavioral feedback and end-results feedback Training Materials Meaningfulness of material Material that is rich in association with the trainees and is thus easily understood by them How do we make sure that our training materials can be understood by the trainees? – Provide ove iew: course outlines – Use familiar examples, terms and concepts: visual aid – Sequence in logical order Individual di erences Di erent abilities, gender, experiences, age, education, family background, personality, interest.  Individual di erence Demographic characteristic Age (Tucker, 1985) Younger preferred management (40-49) training Upper Age preferred training in (50-59) technological areas 60 & showed little interest in above any kind of training  Individual di erence (ctd) Management hierarchy (Bernick et. al., 1984) conceptual courses Upper such as goal setting manageme and planning skills nt human resources Mid-level courses such as leadership skills, managers pe ormance appraisals technical factors such First line as book keeping, supe isors written communication  Individual di erence (ctd) Male-female managers (Ber man-Fink, 1986) – Female managers need fu her training: asse iveness, con dence building, public speaking and dealing with - opposite gender Female managers possess: listening, verbal skills, nonverbal communication and empathy and sensitivity Individual di erence (ctd) Government workers (Tucker, 1984) – Need for human resource planning with regard to organisation Individual di erence (ctd) Learning rates – Related to the rate of learning among individuals is the best question: when is learning highest and lowest – Learning progress follow the S-shaped pattern E.g. An S-shaped learning cu e with a plateau Reasons for plateau – May have reached the level of his or her capability – Interest may have decreased temporarily – Maybe in the process of integrating levels of di erent skills – May need a di erent method of instruction Individual di erence (ctd) Individual di erence (ctd) Di erences among trainees in abilities, motivation level, interest and prior histo will a ect pe ormance and attrition (dropout) in training programs (Christal, 1974) – Select applicants for training program who possesses trainability Individual di erences in trainee abilities is related to learning phenomena – Abilities are related to a number of di erent learning phenomena such as pe ormance during massed vs. distributed practice session, whole vs. pa training as well as retention and Individual di erence (ctd) Implications are: – Sho er training program: if trainees are experienced and possessed task-related activities – Longer training program: advisable for relatively inexperienced trainees (Fleishmann & Mumford, 1989) Trainers di er in the kinds of “mental model” they formulate and that these mental models a ect how well trainees learn what is being taught “mental models” Employ a training approach which encouraged trainee exploration and the active development of an integrated mental model Mental model – Key characteristics Mental models include what a person thinks is true, not necessarily what is actually true Mental models are similar in structure to the thing or concept they represent Mental models allow a person to predict the results of his actions Mental models are simpler than the thing or concept they represent. ey include only enough information to allow accurate predictions Mental model (ctd) On the average, older trainees require longer to reach pro ciency levels than younger trainees and they may have developed alternative ways of organizing information which could con ict with the requirements of the training program Older trainees need slower presentation rates, longer periods for study, sequencing their learning from simple to complex tasks, greater help in the organization and memo processes and the greater use of training techniques that provide active pa icipation in the learning process Learning eories Behavioral modeling We can learn by imitating those actions of others that we see as leading desirable outcomes. Albe Bandura’s Social Learning eo (1977) Social learning theo People learn by obse ing other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable Behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated In uenced by a person’s self-e cacy Explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental in uences. Necessa conditions for e ective modeling Attention Retention Motor Motivation Model stimuli Coding Reproducti al Match Trainee Organization on Processes Modeled Characteristic Rehearsal Physical Reinforcemen Pe ormanc s capability t e Accuracy Feedback Source: Based on A. Bandura, Social Foundations of oughts and Actions (Englewood Cli s, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986); P.Taylor, D. Russ-Eft, and D. Chan, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Behavior Modeling Training”, Journal of Applied Psychology 90 In Noe (2008), Employee Training & Development, p.129  Behavioral modeling How is learning facilitated through the use of a model? Positive consequences: the model’s action functions as a cue to what constitutes appropriate behavior Modelling occurs: person imitated is seen as being competent, powe ul, friendly and of high status within an Behavioral modeling (ctd)  Modeling is increased: person to be imitated is seen as being rewarded for how he or she acts as and when the rewards received by the model (e.g. status, in uence, friendship) are the things that the obse ers would like for themselves  Obse er identi cation with the models is maximised when the model is similar to the obse er  Showing a trainee a negative model (showing trainee the wrong way of doing things) together with a positive model appears to facilitate transfer of learning to other situations Adult learning theo Malcolm Knowles (1984) Developed out of the need for a speci c theo of how adults learn Andragogy – the theo of adult learning  Motivation What ways are there to motivate trainees? Goal Setting Expectancy  Motivation Goal Setting eo  A goal is anything an individual is t ing to achieve  States that an individual’s conscious goals or intentions regulate one’s behavior  Hard goals result in higher pe ormance than easy ones  Speci c hard goals result in high pe ormance than having no goals or generalized goals such as “do your best” Motivation (ctd) Latham and Lee (1986) ndings:  Learning objectives of the training program should be conveyed clearly to the pa icipants at the outset of training and at various strategic points throughout the training process  Training goals should be di cult enough so that trainees are adequately challenged and thus are able to derive satisfaction from the achievement of objectives  e goal should be supplemented with periodic sub-goals during training such as trainee evaluation, work sample test and periodic quizzes  Motivation (ctd) Bandura (1982) & Locke and Latham (1990)  Show impo ance of goal setting for increasing self e cacy because without speci c goals people have little basis for judging their capabilities  Self-e cacy refers to the person’s conviction that he or she can master a given task  Low self-e cacy can result in a decreased level of pe ormance  However, goal setting also leads to depressed reactions since their adequacy of pe ormance is measured against their personal standards  Depressed reactions often arise from stringent self evaluation Expectancy eo Victor Vroom (1964) Belief that pe orming a given behavior is associated with a pa icular outcome Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence = E o Expectancy eo  Expectancy eo States that an individual will be more motivated to choose a behaviour alternative that is most likely to have favorable consequences “What am I going to get out of that?” If the individual perceived that putting e o may result in something of value then the individual is motivated to choose a pa icular behavior Expectancy eo e key concepts of the theo are: Outcome Sala increases, Promotion, Peer acceptance, Recognition and achievement Expectancy eo Valence Desirability or attractiveness of an outcome to an individual  E  P Expectancy Employees perceived probability that a given amount of e o will result in improved pe ormance that is quantity/quality of work  P  O Instrumentality Perceived probability that improved pe ormance will lead in turn to the attainment of valued outcomes (e.g. bonus, pay increase, promotion)`  Expectancy eo e theo assumes that before deciding how much e o to exe , employees ask themselves whether or not the following occurs:  at the action has a high probability of leading to better pe ormance (EP)  at the improved pe ormance will lead to a ce ain needs related outcome (PO)  at those need-related outcomes or organisational rewards are of value (valence)  Expectancy eo Here are two conditions that a ect the two expectancies  e PO expectancy depends on a person’s perception of the rewards contingencies presently found in the organization  e EP expectancy depends in pa on the relatively stable characteristics of the workers such as intelligence, motor abilities and personality traits and the individual’s perceptions of what makes the successful employee – of whether e o can be transformed into an e ective pe ormance Implications of Expectancy eo in motivating trainees  e trainee must believe that “there’s something in it for me” in terms of valued outcomes – higher wages, oppo unities for advancement, skill acquisition etc.) If not then the training program will be viewed as a waste of time or will just lead them to no where  Trainers should not assume that their trainees have accurate perceptions of reward contingencies Implications of Expectancy eo in motivating trainees  Organizations should ensure that each trainee has a high EP expectancy by providing e ective instructors, eliminating obstacles to e ective pe ormance, providing accurate role perceptions and selecting trainees with requisite ability and motivation  Only high valence outcomes should be used as incentives for superior trainee pe ormance In summa … e practical implications of the two theories are that they can be applied in motivating learning by making sure that: – Trainees see the value for themselves in pa icipating in the training – Trainees understand the goals or target behaviors of the program – Trainees clearly perceive the link between their actions during training and their receipt of the valued rewards  Source: http: //static.wixstatic.com/media/002e07_4f2604593b1d4cc0b1284d89 323587.gif Retention & transfer of learning What can be done to ensure that what is learned in training will be retained and transferred to the job? Transfer: e extent to which what was learned during training is used on the job. Transfer of Training Transfer of training is also in uenced by the following factors: trainee characteristics training design work environment  Trainees Characteristi Training cs Design Work Environmen t Training  A Model of e Training Transfer Process Trainee Characteristics Motivation Ability Training Design Create a Learning Learning Generalizati Environment on and Retentio Apply eories of Transfer Maintenanc n Use Self-Management e Strategies Work Environment Climate for Transfer Management and Peer Suppo Oppo unity to Pe orm Technological Suppo Adapted from: Baldwin & Ford (1988) 3 possible training transfer learning in the training Positiv situation e Trans results in better fer pe ormance on the job Negati results in TRAINING ve poorer TRANSFER Transfe pe ormance r on the job Zero has no e ect Transfe on job r pe ormance  Trainee Characteristics Motivatio Abilities n Muscular Expectancy Coordination Goal setting Visual Acuity Personal Characteristic Mental Ability Training Design Factors built into the training program to increase the chances that transfer of training will occur For transfer of training to occur, managers need to apply: – transfer of training theories – principles of self-management Transfer of Training eories eo Emphasis Appropriate Type of Conditions Transfer Identical Training Work environment Near Elements environment is features are identical to work predictable and environment stable Stimulus General principles Work environment is Far Generalization are applicable to unpredictable and many di erent highly variable work situations Cognitive Meaningful All types of training Near and far eo material and and environments coding schemes enhance storage Self-Management Strategies Self-management – a person’s attempt to control ce ain aspects of decision making and behavior Training programs should prepare employees to self-manage their use of new skills and behaviors on the job Aspects of Self- Management Determining the degree of suppo and negative consequences in the work setting for using newly acquired skills Setting goals for using learned capabilities Applying learned capabilities to the job Monitoring use of learned capabilities on the job Engaging in self-reinforcement Organizational Elements at Encourage Transfer: e Learning Knowledge and Organization Knowledge Management Work Environment Characteristics In uencing Transfer of Training Organizational Climate for Manager Suppo Transfer Suppo Oppo unity to Technological Peer Use Learned Suppo Suppo Capabilities  Peer groups – e interactive dynamics between the individual and his peers is a potent force in the socialisation process within an organisation – Interaction can provide suppo and reinforcement for not only learning what is being taught in the training program but also in applying what was learned in the job  Supe iso suppo – To increase the probability of transfer of training to work in the workplace, supe isors need to reinforce the application of what was learned in training to the job – Do this e ectively by unde aking the following: e supe isor must be fully aware of the training objectives as well as the training content for attaining the objectives Another way to publicise commitment to training objectives is to have the supe isors and the trainees sign a contract e Learning Organization A company that has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change Training processes are carefully scrutinized and aligned with company goals Training is seen as one pa of a system designed to create intellectual capital Key Features of a Learning Organization Feature Description Continuous Learning Employees share learning with each other Use job as a basis for applying and creating knowledge Knowledge Generation Systems are developed for creating, and Sharing capturing, and sharing knowledge Employees are encouraged to think Critical Systematic in new ways, see relationships and inking feedback loops, and test  Key Features of a Learning Organization (ctd.) Feature Description Learning Culture Learning is rewarded, promoted, and suppo ed by managers and company objectives Encouragement of Employees are free to take risks, Flexibility and innovate, explore new ideas, t new Experimentation processes, and develop new products and se ices Valuing of Employees System and environment focus on ensuring the development and well- Knowledge and Knowledge Management Knowledge refers to: – what individuals or teams of employees know or know how to do (human and social knowledge) – a company’s rules, processes, tools, and routines (structured knowledge) Knowledge is either: – tacit knowledge, or – explicit knowledge Knowledge and Knowledge Management (ctd) Knowledge management – the process of enhancing company pe ormance by: – designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures – to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge Knowledge and Knowledge Management (ctd) Knowledge management can help companies: – get products to market quicker – better se e customers – develop innovative products and se ices – attract new employees and retain current ones by giving people the oppo unity to learn and develop Four Modes of Knowledge Sharing TO Tacit Explicit Knowledge Knowledge Socialization Externalization ORF M Internalization Combination Ways to Create and Share Knowledge  Use technology and software that allows people to store information and share it with others  Publish directories that list:  what employees do  how they can be contacted  the type of knowledge they have Ways to Create and Share Knowledge (ctd)  Develop informational maps that identify where speci c knowledge is stored in the company  Create chief information o cer and chief learning o cer positions for cataloging and facilitating the exchange of information in the company Ways to Create and Share Knowledge  Require employees to give presentations to other employees about what they have learned from training programs they have attended  Allow employees to take time o from work to acquire knowledge, study problems, attend training, and use technology Ways to Create and Share Knowledge (ctd)  Create an online libra of learning resources such as journals, technical manuals, training oppo unities, and seminars  Design o ce space to facilitate interaction between employees  Organisational factors a ecting transfer of learning Factors that a ect trainee outcome expectancies (Latham & Crandall, 1981) Pay and pe ormance systems are e ective methods for bringing about and sustaining pe ormance (Heneman, 1990) Pay and promotion Environmenta policies l constraints Have deleterious e ect on trainee’s outcome Organisational factors a ecting transfer of learning Empirical investigations show the e ect of environmental constraints on an individual’s behaviour Peter, et al (1982) found that three types of situational constraints a ected pe ormance on goal setting tasks: Completeness of task information Ease of use of materials and supplies Similarity of work environment to training environment To minimise the probability of low outcomes expectancies Conduct organisational assessment to identify any barriers to transfer before training begins in addition Social variables a ecting the transfer of learning Peer groups Supe iso suppo Social variables a ecting the transfer of learning Other environmental variables are social in nature and stem from interactions with peers and supe isors Peer groups – e interactive dynamics between the individual and his pees is a potent force in the socialisation process within an organisation – Interaction can provide suppo and reinforcement for not only learning what is being taught in the training programme but also in applying what was learned in the job Social variables a ecting the transfer of learning Supe iso suppo – To increase the probability of transfer of training to work in the workplace, supe isors need to reinforce the application of what was learned in training to the job – Do this e ectively by unde aking the following: e supe isor must be fully aware of the training objectives as well as the training content for attaining the objectives Another way to publicise commitment to training objectives is to have the supe isors and the trainees sign a contract Obstacles in the Work Environment that Inhibit Transfer of Training Retention & transfer of learning After What can the training be done? During the trainin Supe iso g sessi Before r on the training begins Trainers Trainees Retention and transfer of learning (ctd) Before training begins Conduct a needs analysis that includes multiple constituencies Seek out supe iso suppo for training Inform the trainees regarding the nature of the training Assign tasks prior to the training sessions Retention and transfer of learning (ctd) During the training session Maximise the similarity between the training situation and the job situation Provide as much experience as possible with the tasks being taught Have the trainees practice their newly learned skills in actual situations back on their jobs Provide a variety of examples when teaching concepts or skills Label or identify impo ant features of a task Make sure that general principles are understood (not merely memorized) before expecting such transfer Provide trainees with the knowledge, skills and feelings of self- e cacy to self-regulate their own behaviours back on their jobs Design the training content so that the trainees can see its  Retention and transfer of learning (ctd) After the training After completing the training programme, trainees should be assigned speci c behavioural goals In addition, the trainees and/or supe isors should complete behavioural progress repo s to monitor the extent of the goal achievement back on the job Have the trainer collaborate with each of the trainees in using the applications plan principle Make ce ain that the trained behaviours and ideas are rewarded in the job situations Use the relapse prevention strategy which relies heavily on behavioural self-management to encourage con dence and self-esteem (Ma , 1982)