UNIT 4 Early Adulthood PDF

2 UNIT 4: Early Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Development Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood Emerging Adulthood: period of transition from Adolescence to Adulthood which lasts from 18-25 years approximately, characterised by experimentation and exploration (Arnett, 2006...

2 UNIT 4: Early Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Development Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood Emerging Adulthood: period of transition from Adolescence to Adulthood which lasts from 18-25 years approximately, characterised by experimentation and exploration (Arnett, 2006, 2007) Transition from high school to college Top-dog phenomenon Movement to a larger, impersonal school structure Interactions with peers from various geographies and diverse, ethnic background Increased focus on achievement and assessment More opportunities to explore different lifestyles and values Enjoy greater independence from parents Be intellectually challenged by academics a. Physical Development Physical peak is attained between the ages of 19 and 26 Different athletes reach their peaks at different times Swimmers and gymnasts – late teens Golfers and marathon runners – late twenties Muscle tone and strength usually decline around the age of 30 b. Health Emerging adults have more than twice the mortality rate of teens (Park et al, 2006) However, they have fewer chronic health problems and fewer cold and respiratory problems than they did as children Bad health habits from adolescence increased in emerging adulthood (inactivity, bad food habits, substance abuse, reproductive care) This lifestyle is associated with poor health and low life satisfaction Can be improved by reducing unhealthy eating habits  and consuming a balanced diet, exercising regularly and not abusing drugs c. Eating and Weight Obesity: serious and pervasive health problem, defined as having a BMI of 30 or more. Prevalence has increased from 19% in 1997 to 33% in 2006 Linked to increased risk of Hypertension, Diabetes and Cardiovascular Diseases along with mental health issues like depression Factors involved in Obesity: 1. Heredity: Some individuals inherit a tendency to be overweight 2. Leptin: Protein involved in satiety (condition of being full to satisfaction) released by fat cells, decreasing food intake and increasing energy expenditure Acts as an anti-obesity hormone Leptin concentrations have been linked to weight, body fat expenditure, weight loss and cumulative percent of fat loss Studies show that when obese individuals engage in regular exercise, they lost weight, associated with changes in leptin levels 3. Set point: Weight one maintains when they make no effort to gain or lose weight Amount of fat stored in the body is an important factor Fat stored in – Adipose tissues, when they are filled, you don’t get hungry Their number increases when one gains weight 4. Environmental Factors: greater availability of food, energy-saving devices and decline in physical activity, sociocultural factors also 5. Dieting: A recent research review of the long-erm outcomes of calorie restricting diets revealed that overall, one-third to two-thirds of dieters regain more weight than they lost on their diets Adults who engaged in diet-exercise programs lost more weight than diet only programs d. Regular Exercise Aerobic Exercise: sustained exercise that stimulates heart and lung activity (jogging, swimming, cycling) 30 minutes of exercise a day Benefits both physical and mental health Improves self-concept, reduces anxiety and depression Prevents diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes e. Substance Abuse By mid-twenties, most individuals reduce their use of drugs and alcohol (Bachman et al., 2002) Huang et al., 2009: 20% college students reported abstaining from drinking Addiction: behaviour pattern characterised by an overwhelming involvement with a drug and securing its supply 1. Alcohol (binge drinking & alcoholism) Linked to high rates of missing classes, physical injuries, troubles with the police Higher rates of sexual risk taking, engaging in casual sex, unprotected sex and risk of sexual assaults Binge drinking: drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time Peaks during 21-22 years, declined throughout 20s Pregaming: Drinking alcohol before going out – common among college students Drinking games with the goal of becoming intoxicated are also common Alcoholism: a disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive and excessive use of alcoholic beverages that impairs the drinker’s health and social relationships 50-60% alcoholics have a genetic predisposition Environmental factors – cultural variations,  having close relatives who drink Factors influencing positive outcome and recovery from alcoholism: i. Strong negative experience related to drinking (serious medical emergency ii. Finding a suitable dependency to compete with alcohol abuse iii. Having new social supports iv. Joining an inspirational group like Alcoholics Anonymous 2. Cigarettes and Nicotine Nicotine: Active drug present in Cigarettes Stimulant that increases the smoker’s energy and alertness Has a pleasurable reinforcing experience Stimulates neurotransmitters that have a calming or pain reducing effect Linked to risk of cancer, heart disease and chronic pulmonary diseases Cognitive Development a. Piaget’s View Adolescents and Young Adults think in the same way qualitatively Adults increase their knowledge in a specific area, such as a physicist’s understanding of physics or a financial analyst’s knowledge about finance. Formal operational thought is the final stage in cognitive development - characterizes adults as well as adolescents b. Pragmatic and Realistic thinking Idealism decreases as they face the constraints of reality Adults go beyond adolescents in their use of intellect Go from acquiring knowledge to applying it (in work) c. William Perry (1999) – Reflective and Relativistic Thinking The absolutist, dualistic thinking of adolescence gives way to the reflective, relativistic thinking of adulthood. Become aware of diverse opinions and multiple perspectives  Reflective thinking is an important indicator of cognitive change in young adults d. Gisela Labouvie-Vief’s view of Cognitive Development Increasing complexity of culture generated a greater need for more reflective complex thinking Takes into account changing nature of knowledge and challenges Level of education attained by young adults influences likelihood of maximising cognitive potential Key aspects: i. Deciding on a particular worldview ii. Recognising its subjectivity iii. Understanding and acknowledging diverse worldviews e. Postformal Stage Qualitatively different from Piaget’s formal thought Understanding that the correct answer to a problem can require reflective thinking – correct answer can vary from one situation to another Search for truth is an ongoing never-ending process Sceptical about existence of a single truth and often are not willing to accept an answer as final. Recognise that thinking can’t just be abstract but rather realistic and pragmatic. Understand that emotions can play a role in thinking Socioemotional Development 1. Stability and Change from Childhood to Adulthood a. Temperament: Individual’s behavioural styles and characteristic emotional responses Fewer emotional mood swings in adulthood than in adolescence Responsibility increases, engage in less risk- taking behaviour Studies show a link between childhood temperament and adult personality Types and dimensions of temperament: i. Easy and difficult: children with easy temperaments are more likely to be well adjusted as young adults, continue formal  education, experience fewer marital conflict ii. Inhibition: Children with inhibited temperament as less likely to be assertive as adults, experience social support and enter stable jobs iii. Ability to Controls one’s emotions: Children who can handle their emotions well and are resilient during stress, continue to handle emotions effectively in adulthood Theodore Wachs (1994, 2000): Linkages between temperament in childhood and adulthood vary depending on intervening contexts in individual experience InitialTemperamentTrait:Inhibition ChildA ChildB InterveningContext Caregivers Caregivers(parents)whoaresensitiveandaccepting,andlet Caregiverswhouseinappropriate"low-levelcontrol"and childsethisorherownpace. attempttoforcethechildintonewsituations. PhysicalEnvironment Presenceof"stimulusshelters"or"defensiblespaces"thatthe Childcontinuallyencountersnoisy,chaoticenvironmentsthat childrencanretreattowhenthereistoomuchstimulation. allownoescapefromstimulation. Peers Peergroupswithotherinhibitedchildrenwithcommon Peergroupsconsistofathleticextroverts,sothechildfeels interests,sothechildfeelsaccepted. rejected. Schools Schoolis"undermanned,"soinhibitedchildrenaremorelikely Schoolis"overmanned,"soinhibitedchildrenarelesslikelyto tobetoleratedandfeeltheycanmakeacontribution. betoleratedandmorelikelytofeelundervalued. PersonalityOutcomes Asanadult,individualisclosertoextraversion(outgoing, Asanadult,individualisclosertointroversionandhasmore sociable)andisemotionallystable. emotionalproblems. b. Attachment: Emotional bonds and connection patterns people form with others, particularly in romantic relationships, friendships, and close familial connections. Rooted in early experiences with primary caregivers influences how people perceive, seek, and respond to intimacy, support, and emotional closeness. Adults may count on their partner as a secure base which they can return to for comfort and security Hazan and Shaver (1987): Securely attached adults were likely to have securely attached relationships with their parents i. Secure Attachment: positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned with or stressed out about their romantic relationships. These adults tend to enjoy sexuality in the context of a committed relationship and are less likely than others to have one-night stands. ii. Avoidant Attachment: Hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships, tend to  distance themselves from their partner iii. Anxious Attachment Style: Demand closeness, less trusting, more emotional, jealous and possessive Securely attached adults are more satisfied with their close relationships than insecurely attached adults – characterised by trust, commitment and longevity Mikulincer and Shaver (2007): attachment insecurity places couples at risk for relationship problems 2. Attraction, Love and Close Relationships Consensual validation: An explanation of why individuals are attracted to people who are similar to them. Our own attitudes and behaviour are supported and validated when someone else’s attitudes and behaviour are similar to our own. Matching hypothesis: that although we prefer a more attractive person in the abstract, in the real world we end up choosing someone who is close to our own level. Psychosocial Development in Adulthood Early Adulthood Arnett’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, Key features: 1. Identity Exploration - especially in love and work 2. Instability in areas of life like love, work and education 3. Self-focused (few obligations and duty towards others – autonomy in running their own life) 4. Feeling in between (neither a teen nor a full-fledged adult) 5. Age of possibilities and opportunity to transform one’s life Early to Middle Adulthood Levinson’s Theory of Adulthood Development “The Seasons of a Man’s Life” (Daniel Levinson, 1978) – presented a comprehensive theory of adult development Interviews with 40 middle-aged men from different professions (workers, executives, scientists, novelists) Encompasses changes and transitions from age 17-65, focuses on developmental tasks must be mastered at each  stage Each stage has two types of periods 1. Stable Period: In which a person makes crucial choices 2. Transition Period: In which one stage ends and another begins 1. Early Adult Transition (17-22 years) Transition from dependence to independence Development of a Dream – An individual’s vision for the future, in terms of career and relationships 2. Entering the Adult World (22-28 years) Novice Phase: A period of experimentation with various roles in love, work and other aspects of life Main task – begin to realise the dream while testing it against real-world demands 3. Age 30 Transition (28-33 years) Individuals reassess their life structure and consider new goals Period of re-evaluation, especially concerning career and family 4. Settling Down (33-40 years) Focus on family and career development Marks the ‘Becoming one’s own man” BOOM Stage – men start to solidify their personal and professional identities By 40, man has a clear sense of who he is and what he wants 5. Midlife Transition (40-45 years) Most significant and challenging transitions Leads to reassessment of life and is turbulent and emotionally difficult 4 main conflicts 1. Being young vs being old: coping with aging and its limitation 2. Being destructive vs constructive: reconciling harmful past behaviours and moving towards constructive goals 3. Being masculine vs being feminine: balancing traditional traits associated with masculinity and femininity 4. Being attached vs being separated: managing relationships with others and maintaining  personal autonomy 6. Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50 years) Resolution of midlife transition marks entry into middle adulthood Individuals focus on stability, responsibility and the acceptance of the life they have created Midlife Crisis Time of crisis for most men, involving intense reassessment of personal and professional life Involves questioning of long held beliefs, values and life choices 70-80% men experience this Criticisms Levinsons’s Stage theory doesn’t account for individual variations in how people experience adulthood People may face crisis in some area of their lives while flourishing in others Not everyone goes through midlife crisis Some may find midlife to be a period of growth and achievement. Alternative Views 1. George Vaillant’s Grant Study Disagreed with Levinson’s view of midlife crisis Argued that for most people, midlife is more about reassessing the past and coming to terms with it, rather than a dramatic crisis Many individuals experience growth, well-being and life satisfaction during this period 2. Wethington et al. (2004) Only 26% of middle-aged adults reported experiencing a midlife crisis – often attributed to negative life events (job loss, illness), not to aging 3. McCrae and Costa (1990) and Seigler and Costa (1999) – found minimal evidence of midlife crises in longitudinal studies and individuals showed emotional stability in midlife UNIT 6: Late Adulthood Life Span: Maximum number of years an individual can live (120-125 years). Increased by an average of 30+ years due to advancements in medicine, nutrition, lifestyle, exercise Life Expectancy: Number of years that an average person born in a particular year will probably live Theories of Aging 1. Evolutionary theory of aging: This theory states that natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics in older adults; thus, the benefits conferred by evolutionary theory decline with age because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness. 2. Cellular clock theory: Leonard Hayflick’s theory that the maximum number of times that human cells can divide is about 75 to 80. As we age, our cells have less capability to divide. 3. Free-radical theory: A microbiological theory of aging that states that people age because inside their cells normal metabolism produces unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals. These molecules ricochet around inside cells, damaging DNA and other cellular structures. 4. Mitochondrial theory: The theory that aging is caused by the decay of mitochondria, tiny cellular bodies that supply energy for function, growth, and repair. 5. Hormonal stress theory: The theory that aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease. Cognitive Mechanics and Pragmatics (Paul Baltes) 1. Cognitive mechanics are the “hardware” of the mind and reflect the neurophysiological architecture of the brain developed through evolution Speed and accuracy of the processes involved in sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization. Decline with age, may begin as soon as early midlife 2. Cognitive pragmatics are the culture-based “software programs” of the mind reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life. Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive pragmatics, their improvement into old age is possible.  Therefore, they improve with age Intelligence in Old age Proposed by Raymond Cattell 1. Fluid Intelligence: Being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. Independent of learning, experience, and education Tends to decline during late adulthood. Refers to current ability Involves openness to learning new things 2. Crystallized intelligence: Based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger. Increases with age Refers to prior learning Involves recalling specific facts Wisdom: Expert Knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment regarding important matters Mental health of Older Adults 1. Major Depression Mood disorder characterised by feelings of unhappiness, demoralisation and boredom; individual feels self-derogatory “Common cold” of mental disorders Person does not feel well, loses stamina easily, poor appetite, listlessness, lack of motivation Predictors or depression in older adults: - Earlier depressive symptoms - Poor health - Disability - Death of spouse 2. Dementia Neurological disorder in which primary symptom is deterioration of mental functioning Lose ability to care for themselves, recognise familiar surroundings and people Dementia Delirium Develops gradually over time Sudden onset Irreversible Reversible Caused by anatomical changes in brain Caused by a medication, recreational Symptoms: memory problems, drug toxicity or acute illness  confusion, reduced concentration, Symptoms: Inattention, lethargy, personality changes, diff in everyday confusion, hallucinations and mood tasks changes 3. Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive, irreversible, neurodegenerative disorder Characterised by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language and physical functioning Early Onset (in people below 65 years) and Late Onset (in people older than 65) Deficiency in Acetylcholine (plays an important role in memory) Brain shrinks and deteriorates Deterioration is due to - Amyloid plaques (dense deposits of proteins that accumulate in blood vessels) - Neurofibrillary tangles (twisted fibres that build up in neurons) Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early Alzheimer disease and other dementias. CHOLINERASE INHIBITORS: Drugs used to improve memory and other cognitive functions by increasing acetylcholine levels (slow down progression, not a treatment for the cause of Alzheimer’s) 4. Multi-Infarct Dementia Sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated temporary obstruction to blood flow in arteries in cerebrum Series of mini strokes Infarct – temporary blockage of blood vessels Symptoms: Confusion, writing impairments, slurry speech, numbness on one side of body 5. Parkinson’s Disease: Chronic, progressive disease characterised by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, partial facial paralysis Degeneration of dopamine producing neurons (neurotransmitter necessary for normal functioning) Treatment: L-dopa, Deep drain stimulation (DBS) Bereavement and Death: Coping with the death of a loved one  Death and dying are defined from a number of perspectives, depending upon one’s belief system Fischer (1998) – death is the final moment of life, the end of life as we know it Kubler and Ross (1975) – Death is the final stage of growth in this life. There is no total death. Only the body dies. The self or spirit, is eternal. You may interpret this in any way that makes you comfortable. Death System and its Cultural Variations Most cultures do not view death as the end of existence – spiritual life is thought to continue U.S. has been described as a more death-denying and death-avoiding culture than most cultures Robert Kastenbaum (2009) outlines several components that make up the “death system”: 1. People: everyone involved in death at some point, either through personal loss or roles like clergy, funeral directors or emergency workers 2. Places or Contexts: Locations linked to death) hospitals, cemeteries, humeral homes, memorials 3. Times: Special occasions like Memorial Day on the U.S. or the Day of the Dead in Mexico, to commemorate those who have died. Anniversary of major disasters (9/11 or Hurricane Katrina) 4. Objects: Items associated with Death (caskets, coffins, black/white clothing, ashes, armbands) 5. Symbols: Skulls, crossbones, religious rites, ceremonies and other symbols related to death Historical Circumstances When, where and why people die have changed historically Life expectancy has increased from 47 years in 1900 to 78 for someone born today Present day – Death occurs most often among older adults 80% of all deaths in the U.S. occurs in a hospital or other institutions Three Viewpoints of Death 1. Physiological View of Death Brain and heart stop functioning No breathing  Nervous system does not respond Body slowly gets damaged and everything goes numb Person slips into a coma 2. Philosophical View of Death Stage of life when there is no hope for the future, nothing to look forward to One’s inability to look beyond or wish for as it is the final stage of life Death forces one to leave everything behind, takes everything away from you Perceived as inevitable, unwanted fact of life, an unknown dark “grey area” which no one has previously experienced – this perception evokes fear 3. Spiritual View of Death Death is akin to moving away from this materialistic world, soul is meeting with God (supreme authority). Moving to a higher level Marks the beginning of a new life. Only the physical entity of our being ends when the soul leaves the body Interpreted as the end of mere physical existence and start of a new life (continuous process) Death – a greater leveller that ‘visits everyone w/o discrimination of caste, class and gender “Every moment since we took birth on this earth, we are inching towards death.” Issues in Determining Death In the past – end of biological functions (breathing, blood pressure) and rigidity in the body (rigor mortis) – clear signs of death Brain death – Neurological definition of death – A person is brain dead when all electrical activity in the brain has ceased for a specific period of time Flas EEG is a criterion Higher portions of brain (higher cortical functioning, personality, intelligence) die sooner than lower portions (heartbeat and respiration) Present definition recognises death of higher cortical functions and lower brain stem functions as brain death Decisions regarding Life, Death and Healthcare Advance Directive – States that life- sustaining processes shall not be used to prolong the life on an individual when death is imminent. Must be signed while individual is still able to think clearly. Euthanasia – act of painlessly ending the lives of individuals suffering from incurable disease or serious disability. “Mercy killing” 1. Passive euthanasia - a person is allowed to die by withholding available treatment, such as withdrawing a life-sustaining device. (turning off respirator/heart- lung machine) 2. Active euthanasia – death is deliberately induced when a lethal dose of a drug is injected Active euthanasia is a crime in most countries Hospice: A program committed to making the end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible. The goals of hospice contrast with those of a hospital, which are to cure disease and prolong life. Palliative care: Care emphasized in a hospice, which involves reducing pain and suffering and helping individuals die with dignity. Causes of Death Death can happen at anytime in the human lifespan 1. Prenatal – Miscarriages, Stillborn births, During Birth or in the first few days after birth due to birth defects or lack of development for survival outside the womb 2. Infancy – sudden infant death syndrome – infants stop breathing during the night and die without an apparent cause 3. Childhood – Accident or illness 4. Adolescence – Automobile Accidents (generally alcohol or substance related), Homicide, Suicide 5. Young Adults – Accidents or illnesses (heart diseases, cancer in middle adulthood) 6. Older Adults – Chronic Disease Attitudes towards Death 1. Childhood Very young infants view brief separations as total losses – reappearance of caregiver is a proof of continuity of existence and reduces anxiety Loss of parent and caregiver can negatively  influence infant’s health Children between 3-5 years confuse death with sleep, may believe it is reversible. May blame themselves for the death of someone they know well by illogically reasoning that it happened because they disobeyed them Children do not view death as universal and irreversible until the age of 9 Realistic views of death emerge during middle and late childhood Loss of parent, sibling or close relatives and friends is especially painful School performance and peer relationships worsen 2. Adolescence The prospect of death, like the prospect of aging, is regarded as remote and death may be avoided, glossed over, or kidded about Yet, they do show a concern for death, try to understand its meaning and how they would confront their own and other’s death Develop more abstract conceptions of death than children (death is a darkness, nothingness, transition) Develop religious or philosophical views about nature of death and existence of afterlife 3. Adulthood increase in consciousness about death accompanies individuals’ awareness that they are aging Intensifies in middle adulthood when they start to think about how much time is left in life Older adults talk and think more about death and examine meaning of life and death more than young adults Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Dying and Grief 1. Denial and Isolation Person denies that death is going to take place Temporary defence Increased awareness about unfinished businesses and worry about those who survive them 2. Anger Realising that denial can no longer be maintained  Anger, resentment, rage and envy “WHY ME?” May be displaced onto those who care for them such as young and healthy family members, physicians or even God 3. Bargaining Person starts to hope that death can somehow be postponed or delayed Often negotiate with God to delay death in exchange for a few more days, weeks or months May promise to lead a more reformed, dedicated life to God 4. Depression Person comes to accept the certainty of death Depression or preparatory grief appears Efforts to disconnect self from people or things they love Attempts to cheer them up should be discouraged as the dying person has a need to contemplate impending death 5. Acceptance Dying person develops a sense of peace and acceptance of one’s fate Desire to be left alone End of the dying struggle, final resting stage before death Evaluation of this theory Existence of these stages has not been demonstrated in any research Neglects the patient’s situation (relationship support, specific events of illness, family obligations and institutional climate) Psychologists prefer to call it reactions to death rather than stages of dying Perceived Control: Adaptive strategy where individuals believe they can influence and control events such as prolonging life and may become more alert and cheerful Denial (a river in Egypt): May be adaptive or maladaptive Used to avoid the destructive impact of shock or delaying the necessity of dealing with one’s own death Cope with intense feelings of anger or hurt  Its use needs to be evaluated on an individual basis Bereavement: experience of losing someone we love characterised by grief Grief: emotional numbness, disbelief, separation, anxiety, despair, sadness and loneliness that accompany the loss of someone we love. Complex, evolving process with multiple dimensions, not a single emotion as such Involves ups and downs Can evolve into depression and suicidal thoughts Prolonged grief: grief that involves enduring despair and is still unresolved over an extended period of time Disenfranchised grief: an individual’s grief over a deceased person that is a socially ambiguous loss that can’t be openly mourned or supported (loss of an ex-spouse, child lost to an abortion) - May intensify as it is not publicly acknowledged - Hidden or repressed Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement 1. Loss-oriented Stressors: focus on the deceased individual and can include grief work and both positive and negative reappraisals of the loss Positive reappraisal - acknowledging that death brought relief at the end of suffering Negative reappraisal - yearning for the loved one and rumination about the death 2. Restoration Oriented Stressors: Involve the secondary stressors that emerge as indirect outcomes of bereavement. Can include a changing identity (such as from “wife” to “widow”) and mastering skills (such as dealing with fi nances). Restoration rebuilds “shattered” assumptions about the world and one’s own place in it.” Effective coping – involves an oscillation between coping with loss and restoration