UNIT 3 and 4 PDF

UNIT – 1 o Introduction What is Quality ? Why is Quality Important ? o Inspection Raw material inspection In-process inspection Final inspection How much to Inspect o Definitions of fabric defects o Packaging o British Standards of Interest to...

UNIT – 1 o Introduction What is Quality ? Why is Quality Important ? o Inspection Raw material inspection In-process inspection Final inspection How much to Inspect o Definitions of fabric defects o Packaging o British Standards of Interest to garment manufacturers o ISO Standards of Interest to garment manufacturers UNIT – 2 o Textile Testing and Product Evaluation Precision and accuracy of test methods Atmospheric conditions for testing o Testing Standards for Yarns used for making fabrics Yarn Strength and Elongation Yarn Number Yarn Twist o Testing Standards for Fabrics used for Apparel Strength Properties Fabric strength properties Dimensional changes in apparel due to laundering, dry cleaning, steaming and pressing. Needle cutting / Yarn severance o Sew-ability of Fabrics o Bow and Skewness (Bias) in Woven and Knitted Fabrics o Soil and Stain Release testing o Fabric Thickness o Abrasion Resistance o Wear Testing o Colorfastness  o Testing Standards for related accessories used in apparel. Testing of Fusible Interlinings Testing of Zippers Elastic Waistbands testing Sewing Threads o Understanding Ecological Aspects UNIT – 3 o Care Labeling of Apparel o Quality Cost o Quality Management Quality Policy Quality Goals Quality Planning Quality Improvement UNIT – 4 Standards- Introduction, benefits, levels, sources (ASTM,ISI,BSI,ISO)  UNIT 3 o Care Labeling of apparel (pg no.331) This system of care symbols also uses five basic care symbols as those used in the American system, i.e., a wash tub to indicate washing, a triangle to indicate bleaching, a square to indicate drying, an iron to indicate ironing, and a circle to indicate dry-cleaning (ISO 3758:2005). In addition to five symbols, the St. Andrews cross superimposed on any of them means that the treatment represented by that symbol shall not be used. A bar under the washtub or circle means that the treatment should be milder than that indicated by the same symbol without a bar. A very mild treatment is indicated by a broken bar under washtub. The ISO care labeling system does not require a minimum point size; it requires that the symbols be legible and proportional to the size of the garment. The ASTM and ISO care labeling systems use the same basic five symbols. The difference in the systems consists in the manner in which refinements to the basic processes are conveyed. The ISO care labeling system assumes that washing machines have internal mechanisms for heating water to a precise temperature, and it links symbols for cool-down rinse, reduced spin, and reduced mechanical action to precise temperature settings. In addition, it includes only normal and low temperature ranges for tumble drying. Both of these aspects of ISO care labeling system are inconsistent with the technology of laundry equipment used in the United States. The ISO care labeling system has no symbols for natural drying, use of non-chlorine bleach, or use of steam in ironing. The ISO care labeling system's symbol for dry-cleaning does not address all the warnings required by the American rules for care labeling. In the ISO care labeling system, an underlined circle warns professional drycleaners generally about potential harm from mechanical action and/or labeling system does not have a method for providing warnings about which specific parts of the dry-cleaning process should be avoided as required by the American regulation for care labeling. Water Temperature (pg no.332) Many care labeling standards are trying to avoid terms such as "hot", "warm", "cold", etc. and expressing wash temperature in terms of degrees, as what is warm for someone may not be warm for someone else. This will be clear from the following table which compares various wash temperature referenced by a variety of standard bodies.  Other Care Labeling Systems (pg no.332) Some other countries have their own care labeling system. For example Australian Standard 1957-1987, Care Labeling of Clothing. Canada has National Standard of Canada CAN/CGSB Labeling of Textiles. 86.1-M91., Care Labeling of textiles. Japan has JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) L 0217-1995, Care Labeling of Textile Goods. International Care Labeling System, known as GINETEX. Member countries of GINETEX are Belgium, France, Germany, England Netherlands, Israel, Austria, Switzerland, and Spain. Writing care instruction (pg no.333) Labels for clothing must have a washing instruction or a dry cleaning instruction. If the item can be washed and dry cleaned, the label needs only one of these instructions. However, you may want to consider that consumers would like to have washing instructions for items that can be washed. If you prefer, you can give instructions for both washing and dry cleaning. Sometimes, because of the particular combination of components, a garment can neither be safely washed nor dry cleaned, but the manufacturer nevertheless wishes to market it. The label on such a garment must say "Do not wash Do not dry clean." We recommend, but don't require, that the terms defined in the Rule's glossary be used when applicable. The care symbols from the American Society for Testing and Materials designated as ASTM Standard D5489-07, Standard Guide for Care Symbols for Care Instructions on Textile Products, may be used in place of words, but the symbols must fulfill the requirements of the Rule. These symbols are also very similar but not identical to the symbols designated as an international standard by the International Standards Organization (ISO) that are used in many European countries. Only the ASTM symbols have been approved for use in the United States. The system used in Europe does not provide symbols for all the information required by the Care Labeling Rule. The U.S. representatives to the ISO are working to add the necessary symbols to the international standard and to harmonize the international standard with the ASTM standard. Washing Instructions: Five Elements 1. Washing by hand or by machine The label must say whether the product should be washed by hand or machine. The label also must give a water temperature setting if regular use of hot water will harm the product. 2. Bleaching If all commercially available bleaches can be used on a regular basis without harming the product, the label does not have to mention bleach. If using chlorine bleach on a regular basis would harm the product, but using non-chlorine bleach on a regular basis would not, the label must say, "Only non-chlorine bleach, when needed." If all commercially available bleaches would harm the product when used on a regular basis, the label must say "No bleach" or "Do not bleach." 3. Drying The label must say whether the product should be dried by machine or some other method. Unless regular use of high temperature will harm the product when machine dried, it is not necessary to indicate a temperature setting.  4. Ironing Ironing information must be given on a care label if ironing will be needed on a regular basis. If regular use of a hot iron will not harm a product, it is not necessary to indicate a temperature setting 5. Warnings If the consumer reasonably could be expected to use a care procedure that would harm the product, the label must contain a warning like "Do not," "No," "Only," to warn against it. For example, if a garment the label should state "Do not iron" if the customer can be expected will be harmed by ironing, even if ironing is not required regularly, to "touch up" the garment occasionally. If a care procedure on one product could cause harm to another product being washed with it, a warning must be included. For example, if an item is not colorfast, the label must say, "Wash with like colors" or "Wash separately." Warnings are not necessary for alternative procedures that could be harmful. For example, if the instructions state, "Dry flat," it's not necessary to state, "Do not tumble dry." ▪ Dry cleaning Instructions (pg no.334) A simple "dry clean" instruction may be used under two conditions First, if all commercially available types of solvent can be used, the label doesn't have to mention any particular type of solvent. If one or more solvents would harm the product, however, a safe solvent must be mentioned. (For example, "Dry clean, petroleum solvent.") Second, a simple "dry clean" may be used if the dry cleaning process, as defined in the Rule, can be used on the garment with no modifications. If any part of the dry cleaning process would harm the product, the "dry clean" instruction must include a warning to avoid or modify that part of the process. "Do not," "No," "Only," or other clear wording must be used. For example, if steam would damage a garment, the label should say, "Dry clean. No steam." In this situation, where a modification must be made to the normal dry cleaning process, you may, if you wish, say, "Professionally dry clean. No steam." But "Professionally dry clean" should not be used where there is no need to modify the normal dry cleaning process, and it should only be used with the instructions for modifying the process. (E.g., "Professionally dry clean. No steam.") By itself, "Professionally dry clean" is not an adequate instruction. Remember that "Dry clean Only" is a warning that the garment cannot be washed. For any warning on the label, you must have evidence that the process warned against will damage the garment. You may label garments "Dry clean Only," but only if you have evidence that washing will damage the garment. ❖ Symbols for Wash care  o Flammability pg 351 Clothing and textile products must meet certain flammability standards. These standards are federal regulations and come under the purview of the U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission [CPSC]. Also, the flammability issue is very important from a product liability point of view [Product Safety & Liability Reporter, 1980]. According to fire injury data from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission [CPSC), more than 4,000 consumers a year suffer severe burn înjuries and an estimated 150 or more die even when their clothing and apparel items had met the requirements of the federal standard for the flammability of clothing textiles [NASFM- Wearing Apparel, 2004]. Flammability of Clothing Textiles (pg no.351) All fabrics of natural and regenerated cellulose, as well as certain types of finished and unfinished fabrics made from other natural or synthetic fibers, are combustible. Some combustible fabrics, when used for clothing, are potentially dangerous to the wearer because of the speed and intensity of flame with which those fabrics burn, also their ease of ignition, because of the design of the garment. Two of these factors, the ease of ignition and the speed of flame spread can be measured, then relied upon to decide whether a fabric tested is dangerous or not. The flammability of clothing textiles is governed by Title 16 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations) 1610 [Federal Register, 1984). It excludes interlining fabrics and certain hats, gloves, and footwear. This regulation requires that a piece of fabric, which is placed in a holder at a 45° angle and exposed to a flame for 1 second, not ignite and spread flame upto the length of the sample in less than 3.5 seconds for smooth fabrics or 4.0 seconds for napped fabrics. This requirement eliminated easy-to-ignite brushed fabrics and prohibited the introduction of equally hazardous textile material in to the market. Today, most fabrics in general apparel use to meet the requirements of this regulation. It is interesting to note that since this law went into effect in 1954 there were no reports of violation of this law till August '94; however, between August '94 and April 7, 2010 CPSC issued 35 recalls under this act. The products recalled were skirts, sweaters, scarves, shirts, sweatshirts, jackets, and bathrobes. The recalled products were made from chiffon, fleece, and terry cloth fabric and fiber content was 100% rayon, 88% rayon & 12% nylon, polyester & cotton, and 100% silk. The country of origin of these recalled products were China, Hong Kong, India, Korea, Pakistan, Taiwan, Turkey and USA. This standard does not apply to hats, gloves, footwear, and interlining fabrics. Interlining fabrics are not considered dangerously flammable when used as interlinings. When used for other purposes they should be tested and rated the same as any other fabrics. This regulation exempts following fabrics from meeting requirements of this regulation: (a) Plain surface fabrics, regardless of fiber content, weighing 2.6 ounces per square yard or more. (b) All fabrics, both plain and raised fiber surface, regardless of weight, made entirely from any of the following fibers or entirely from combinations of the following fibers: acrylic, modacrylic, nylon, olefin, polyester, and wool. Also, this regulation allows initial and continuing guarantees if based on a "program of a reasonable and representative tests" consisting of "at least one test with results demonstrating conformance with the standard for the product." For evaluating compliance with this regulation, a test method called 45° flammability test is used.  45° Flammability Test Method The principle behind this test method is measurement of ease of ignition and the speed with which flame spreads along with visual observation of flame intensity. These three factors are used to separate various fabrics into three classes of flammability as described below, thus assisting in a judgment of fabric suitability for clothing. This test is designated to indicate textiles that ignite easily and, once ignited, burn with sufficient intensity and rapidity so as to be hazardous when worn. This method can be applied to the testing of textiles in general; however, the scale of evaluation is applicable only to textiles used for apparel, for which three classes of flammability are defined. Class 1, normal flammability. These textiles are generally accepted by the trade as having no unusual burning characteristics. Class 2, intermediate flammability. These textiles are recognized by the trade as having flammability characteristics between normal and intense burning. Class 3, rapid and intense burning. These textiles are considered dangerously flammable and are recognized by the trade as being unsuitable for clothing because of their rapid and intense burning. Specimens are prepared by placing the fabric in its most flammable position [lengthwise, widthwise, face up, or face down, etc.] in a steel frame. The prepared specimen is then dried and held at an angle of 45°, a standardized flame is applied to the surface near the lower end for 1 second, and the time required for flaming to proceed up the fabric a distance of 5 inches is recorded. Ignition or fusing of the base of fabrics having a raised fiber surface is noted as an additional indication of intensity of burning. Based on the time of flame spread, the test fabric can be classified into one of three classes as follows: For fabrics having no raised fiber surface: a. If the time of flame spread is 3¹/2 seconds or more, then the fabric is classified as having class 1 flammability (normal flammability). b. If the time of flame spread is less than 3/2 seconds, then the fabric is classified as having class 3 flammability (rapid and intense burning). For fabrics having raised fiber surface: a. If the time of flame spread is 7 seconds or more, then the fabric is classified as having class 1 flammability (normal flammability). b. If the fabric burns with surface flash but the base fabric does not ignite, char, or fuse, then, the fabric is classified as having class 1 flammability [normal flammability). c. If the time of flame spread is 4 seconds or more but less than 7 seconds, then the fabric is classified as having class 2 flammability (intermediate flammability). d. If the time of flame spread is less than 4 seconds and flame intensity is sufficient to ignite, char, or fuse the base fabric, then the fabric is classified as having class 3 flammability (rapid and intense burning). Although all fabrics are usually tested in their original state, it is also necessary to dry-clean and/or wash and retest those fabrics known to contain fire retardant finish or to have any other condition that could cause their flammability classification to be changed by dry-cleaning and/or washing. Those who have used the 45° flammability tester for testing the flammability of a variety of fabrics would have observed that almost all types of fabric pass the requirements of this test method and that most fabrics do not ignite within the prescribed time of 1-second flame impingement. It has therefore become common practice to apply "forced" or "positive" ignition to the specimen surface, that is, to hold the ignition flame in contact with the fabric until it ignites. Weaver reported that fabrics normally begin burning on the upper surface when they are ignited in the 45º test. Sometime after ignition, the flame burns through the surface and ignites the fabric on the lower face. Burning then takes place on both sides of the fabric. This "burn- through" time is generally less for fabrics containing thermoplastic fibers than for a cotton fabric of similar weight which is very brief for acetate and acrylic fabrics. As the fabric weight increases, the burn-through time normally increases. The 45° flammability tester is shown in Figure 11-8 and Figure 11-9 shows a schematic diagram of this tester. A detailed test procedure can be found in [16 CFR 1610].  Flammability of Children's Sleepwear: The standards for flammability of children's sleepwear were issued to protect young children from death and serious burn injuries associated with ignition of sleepwear garments, such as nightgowns and pajamas, by small open flame sources. These standards cover two size ranges of children's sleepwear. One standard covers size 0 to 6X and the other standard covers size 7 to 14. The safety requirements of the two standards are nearly identical. They prescribe a test which requires that specimens of fabrics, seams, and trim of children's sleepwear garments must self-extinguish after exposure to a small open flame. Both standards require manufacturers of children's sleepwear to test prototypes of sleepwear garments with acceptable results before beginning production. Both standards also require manufacturers to sample and test garments from regular production. Failure to comply with the sampling and testing requirements of the standards is a violation of the law. The standards do not require or prohibit the use of any particular type of fabric or garment design as long as the manufacturer successfully completes the prescribed prototype and production testing. o Vertical Flammability Test This test is used exclusively for testing the flammability of children's sleepwear under Title 16 CFR 1615 and 1616. Figure 11-10 shows a vertical flammability tester. o Summary of Test Method A sample consists of five test specimens, each measuring 3.5 inch x 10.0 inch. If the sample is a group of garments, then, each specimen is cut in such a way that it contains a seam in lengthwise direction in the middle of the width of the specimen. Each specimen is mounted in a special U- shaped holder. After oven drying for 30 minutes at 105° C and cooling for 30 minutes in a desiccator, the specimens are suspended vertically in the test chamber, one at a time, and subjected to flame impingement along the center bottom edge for 3 seconds then allowed to burn. The char length for each specimen is measured and recorded. Char length is the distance from the original lower edge of a specimen to the end of the tear or void in the charred, burned, or damaged area of the specimen. Testing is required as produced or after one laundering and after 50 launderings in accordance with AATCC test method 124. o Test Criteria Three samples consisting of five specimens each are tested. An item is considered acceptable if: (a) The average char length of the five specimens that make up a sample does not exceed 7.0 inches, and (b) The full specimen burn of any individual specimen is not its full length, i.e., 10.0 inches. There are provisions in these regulations for the flammability testing of fabric, garment prototype, and production samples. For example, if we have test results as follows:  Quality cost (pg no.376) Just as there are costs associated with various functions and departments or activities in any organization, there are costs associated with quality. These costs are: (a) Cost of poor quality, also known as cost of non-conformance, and (b) Cost of quality function, also known as cost of conformance Total of the "a" and "b" is the total cost of quality. Typically, total cost of quality is broken down or subdivided into four parts as follows: 1. Prevention costs. The costs associated with personnel engaged in designing, implementing, and maintaining the quality system. Maintaining the quality system includes day to day operations of the quality system as well as auditing the quality system periodically. 2. Appraisal costs. The costs associated with measuring, evaluating, or auditing of products, components, and purchased materials to assure conformance with quality standards and performance requirements. 3. Internal failure costs. The costs associated with defective products, components, and materials that fail to meet quality requirements and result in manufacturing losses. 4. External failure costs. The costs generated when defective products are shipped to customers. The total cost of quality, also known as simply 'cost of quality" would be the total of all four elements mentioned above. The cost of quality represents the difference between the actual costs and what reduced costs would be if there were no failures/rejects/defects or substandard products. In the context of garment manufacturing, various quality costs can be divided as follows: 1. Prevention costs. These are planned costs incurred by an organization to ensure that errors are not made at any of various stages during manufacturing and delivery process of the product to the customers. These costs are, for example: (a) Cost of planning various quality functions (b) Cost of quality management personnel (c) Periodic training cost of these personnel (d) Cost of day-to-day operation of quality function (e) Cost of developing standards and specifications (f) Cost of quality improvement projects (g) Cost of market research related to quality (h) Cost of user surveys (i) Cost of contract or document review (j) Cost of design reviews (k) Cost of field trials (l) Cost of supplier evaluation, supplier surveys, supplier audits (m) Cost of purchase order review (n) Cost of evaluating prototype samples, whether testing or wear trials or both (o) Cost of personnel performing such activities, if not part of quality management staff 2. Appraisal costs. These are costs associated with checking or evaluating a product through various stages of manufacturing and delivery process to the customers to ensure that the product meets established criteria. For example, these costs are: (a) Inspection costs (b) Testing costs. These would include cost of samples destroyed in testing, cost of laboratory supplies, laboratory maintenance and calibration, etc. It can also include cost of commercial testing, such as third party testing. (c) Personnel costs associated with inspection and testing. 3. Internal failure costs. These are the costs incurred by the organization resulting from failures found before the product reaches the customer. For example, these costs are: (a) Repair work costs (b) Scrap costs (c) Cost of re-inspection (d) Personnel costs associated with these activities, downtime, and administrative costs associated with all these activities. 4. External failure costs. External failure costs are all those costs to the organization resulting when the customer finds a failure. For example, these costs are: (a) Cost of returned merchandise (b) Cost of replacing defective merchandise (c) Cost of claims (d) Cost of transportation for the defective merchandise (e) Cost of handling customer complaints (f) Personnel costs associated with these activities (g) Lost sales (some retailers charge their suppliers for lost sales due to poor quality merchandise). External failure costs are more critical to the supplying organization as they can impact the future buying decision of the customer. Prevention costs and appraisal costs are also considered costs of quality function because the activities listed under prevention and appraisal costs are typical activities performed by quality management staff. Prevention costs and appraisal costs are also considered "investment" rather than "costs" or "expenses" because it is through prevention and appraisal activities better quality is achieved. Prevention costs and appraisal costs are also called or considered "cost of conformance," i.e., cost of meeting quality requirements. Internal failure costs and external failure costs are considered "cost of poor quality" or "cost of nonconformance," i.e., cost of not meeting quality requirements. Internal failure costs and external failure costs are truly "costs" because if there were no internal and/or external failures, the manufacturers would have not incurred these expenses, and that would have been savings. There is no standard relationship between the four elements of quality costs, that is, prevention costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs, and external failure costs. By increasing prevention and appraisal costs, one would expect to reduce the internal and external failure costs, but there is no definite relationship, i.e., if prevention and appraisal costs are increased by "X" amount or percent, failure costs will go down by "Y" amount or percent. Some of the costs are difficult to detect, for example cost of dis-satisfied customers due to poor quality is very difficult to measure. Waste in budget is difficult to detect, i.e., some departments request and receive bigger budget because they know they have to make allowance for defective products. There are no industry wise data available on quality costs, because obviously companies would not like to divulge such information. Also, even if such data were available, its usefulness for comparative purposes would be highly doubtful because of the various "degrees" or "levels" of quality within the apparel manufacturing industry. Gilmore has looked at total quality costs and the relationship among prevention, appraisal, and failure costs within the context of different product manufacturers. However, only 17 out of 35 companies respond to the survey and not all 17 respondents provide completely useful data. Therefore, it is these author's opinion that no generalization can be drawn from such limited information. Bheda approached about 100 apparel manufacturers in India for participation in a cost of quality study. Sixty eight companies agreed to participate in this study and provide cost of quality data. Responses from 7 companies were discarded because of inconsistent and incomplete data. It was reported that the average cost of quality for these 61 companies representing a good cross-section of geographical locations in India was 14.05% of sales ranging from a low of 1.67% to a high of 33.49% of sales. The average sales of these 61 companies were 230 million, so the average cost of quality for these companies stood at 29 million. The following Table shows cost of quality in the Indian apparel industry.  o Quality Management (pg no.32) ISO [ISO 9000:2005] defines quality management (QM) as "coordinated activities to direct and control an organization with regard to quality." Direction with regard to quality generally include establishment of quality policy and quality objectives, quality planning, quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement. Quality management system is that part of an organization's management system that focuses on the achievement of results based on quality objectives to satisfy the needs and expectations of its customers, both internal and external. Dr. Juran, a world renowned quality management expert, puts quality management in business perspective by comparing it to financial management as shown in the Table 3-1 [Juran & Godfrey, 1999]. There is hardly a company that operates without a budget, i.e. estimating expenditure, allocating resources, etc. Even with sound and realistic budget, most companies would be constantly looking out for opportunities to save money by cost and expense control. Even with effective cost and expense controls, most companies put in place various steps to reduce costs and increase profits as the time goes by. Yet, there are companies that operate without quality management, i.e., quality planning, quality control and quality improvement, and wonder why they are not able to compete. Quality Policy (pg no.33) Effective quality management (QM) starts with a quality policy. Effective- ness is the extent to which planned activities are realized and planned results achieved. Policy is a guide to managerial action. A quality policy is overall intentions and directions or management philosophy of an organization related to quality as formally expressed by the top management. Top management means the CEO (Chief Executive Officer) or MD (Managing Director) and all those positions that report directly to CEO or MD. The operation of any company reflects the underlying philosophy of those who lead it. The management philosophy shapes the culture of the organization. An effective quality policy gives direction to an organization in terms of purpose. It is a means of defining an organization's aim, which all employees should be aware of. Quality policy brings clarity and unity within a company. Employees and workers in any organization make decisions on behalf of the top management every day. Quality policy is supposed to provide a reference point for every employee in their decision making regarding quality matters. The content of the quality policy should be appropriate to the business, include a commitment to improvement and customer satisfaction and refer to the objectives to be achieved by the company. For a quality policy to be effective, it should be capable of influencing behavior of the management as well as employees. Quality policy should reflect company's vision and mission. Dr. Juran [Juran & Godfrey, 1999] suggests top management consider the following questions while formulating quality policy. "What markets do we intend to serve? Within these markets, how does quality affect income? What standards do we need to establish - quality leadership, competitiveness, or adequacy? Shall we go for quality leadership, for a respectable grade, or for what can get by? Shall we go for building a well- known image around our quality performance? What internal standards will we set for conduct of the quality function? How will we divide up the work of achieving fitness for use among the various company departments, among the various levels of supervision, between line and staff, between supervisors and non-supervisors, between the company and its vendors?"  Only after crystallizing the discussion of the above questions can top management establish quality policy, objectives and plans to make the dreams come true. Here is an example of the quality policies of a clothing company called Ann Taylor. Quality Policy of Ann Taylor "We are committed to meeting evolving needs of women who want feminine, stylish and versatile fashions that are of great quality and value and that inspire women to look as beautiful as they feel. Ann Taylor clients place a premium on how they are perceived and we strive to serve as a trusted advisor to help women with all of their wardrobe needs." Ann Taylor is a chain of women's clothing stores that primarily caters to professional women. [www.anntaylorstores.com/aboutus/index.aspl Note that the above policy statement refers to "meeting evolving needs", meaning continuous improvement; mentions "great quality and value" and addresses subjective aspect of quality by making reference to "inspire women to look as beautiful as they feel." Here is an example of a generic quality policy: The __________company is committed to delivering defect free products on time at the most competitive cost possible through continuous improvement of our processes and products. We are committed to meet or exceed our customers' expectations each and every time. Quality Goals (pg no.35) Organizing for Quality QC, QA or QM 35 In order to implement quality policy, it should be translated into quality goals. Here are some examples of quality goals. Reduce customer returns by 5% per year (25% over five years). Increase AQL from 4.0% to 2.5% within the next fiscal year. Reduce internal scrap (as measured in cost/unit) by 10% from the previous year. Ensure 100% adherence to the ISO quality system audit program. Quality goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and must have a time frame for completion. Such goals are called "SMART™ goals. If quality goals are not achievable or are unrealistic, employees will get frustrated and will quite trying to achieve quality goals. Quality goals may be linked to product performance (such as shrinkage, colorfastness, seam strength, etc.), service performance (on time delivery, complete delivery, size and color breakdown as ordered, packaging as requested, etc.), customer satisfaction, quality improvement, or cost of quality. A goal has no meaning unless it has a time frame within which it is supposed to be achieved. An open ended goal is not a goal! Quality Planning (pg no.35) In order to achieve quality goals, quality planning is necessary. Quality planning is the process for preparing to meet quality goals. Quality planning refers to allocating resources, defining quality procedures, and selecting quality standards pertaining to a specific product, service or project. Outcome of quality planning is a quality plan. A quality plan is a document or a set of documents that describe the standards (quality requirements); quality procedures (inspection, testing, etc.); resources (types of fabrics and accessories, types of equipment, such as sewing machines, skilled manpower, etc.) needed and processes (operations, types of seam and stitches, etc.) to be used pertinent to a product. The standards can be related to workmanship, such as how a finished garment is supposed to look like and/or product performance, such as colorfastness, shrinkage in laundering, seam strength, etc.  Quality Improvement (pg no.35) Quality improvement is very much a part of quality management. According to Dr. Juran [Juran & Godfrey, 1999] quality improvement projects provide a higher return on investment than virtually any other investment activity. Quality improvement involves either reducing or eliminating things that are wrong with products resulting in customer dissatisfaction and waste (high cost of poor quality). Quality improvement may also mean improving or raising quality level, i.e., reducing % defective level from 5% to 2%. Typical quality improvement steps are: (a) Identification of quality improvement project (b) Preparing a problem statement. As someone has said "a problem well defined is a problem half-solved." (c) Analyzing the symptoms of deficiency or quality problems (d) Identifying the root causes - diagnosing the problem (e) Addressing the root causes - solving the problem, and (f) Putting controls in place to hold the improvements Advantages of Quality Management Those companies that practice quality management treat quality as a strategic issue. Goal/target setting in quality area and management review by top management are ongoing activities. The focus is on improving productivity while eliminating waste and rework and enhancing market value. There is an emphasis on continuous improvement. The top management establishes goals against key measures of customer satisfaction and internal performance. The top management provides necessary resources for continuous improvement. The top management involves suppliers very early in defining requirements for joint development. Companies work with suppliers to develop mutual trust, respect, and commitment to customer satisfaction. While the responsibility for quality management belongs to top management, the attainment of desired quality requires the commitment and participation of everyone in the organization. UNIT – 2 o Understanding Ecological Aspects 1. Waste generation The global production of textile fibre has doubled in the last 20 years, reaching an all-time high of 111 million tonnes in 2019 and maintaining growth forecasts for 2030. This increase, together with the current consumption model, leads to the generation of vast amounts of textile waste; in Spain alone it is estimated that annual clothing waste is 900,000 tonnes 2. Low recycling rate The recycling rate for textile waste is very low. More than 85% of products discarded by consumers end up in landfills or incinerators and only 13% is recycled in some form after use. Most is transformed into other lower value items such as rags, insulation or filler material and less than 1% is recycled into new fibre. Therefore, in order to comply with the new regulations, it will not be enough to ensure the selective collection of textile waste, but will require the research and development of technologies that enable the recycling of the fibres with the aim of maintaining their value for as many cycles as possible. 3. High water consumption (water footprint) Textile production uses a lot of water, as well as land to grow cotton and other fibres. It is estimated that the global textile and clothing industry used 79 billion cubic metres of water in 2015, while the needs of the entire EU economy amounted to 266 billion cubic metres in 2017. To make a single cotton T-shirt, estimates indicate that 2,700 litres of fresh water are needed – the amount of water a person drinks in two and a half years. 4. Use of chemicals Chemicals are used in virtually all textile production processes, from fabric preparation and bleaching to finishing. Although at the legislative and regulatory level the use of permitted chemicals is well controlled (e.g. REACH regulation in Europe), the pollution load of these chemicals is still a major problem, especially for water treatment. It is estimated that between 1.5 and 6.9 kg of chemicals are used in the production of 1 kg of garments meaning that the amount of chemicals used is greater than that of the textile product itself. Hence, the development of technologies to reduce chemical consumption, and generate as low a pollution load in effluents as possible, is critical. 5. Water pollution and the emission of micro-plastics According to estimates, the dyes and finishing products used in textiles are responsible for about 20 % of global drinking water pollution. The laundering of synthetic materials releases about 0.5 million tonnes of microfibres each year, which end up in the oceans. Synthetic laundry accounts for 35% of the primary microplastics released into the environment: a single load of polyester clothing can shed 700,000 microplastic fibres that can find their way into the food chain. 6. Greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprint) The fashion industry is estimated to be responsible for 10% of global carbon emissions, more than international flights and shipping combined. According to the European Environment Agency, textile purchases in the EU in 2017 generated around 654 kg of CO2 emissions per person. To help reduce these impacts, AITEX places its full array of technical facilities and resources at the disposal of the textile industry. Through the development of R&D projects, obtaining certifications that accredit good practices and specific training in sustainability and circular economy, companies will be able to reduce their costs and implement new sustainable business models. For further information, please contact Ana Rodes, Head of the Technical Unit of Circular Economy and Sustainability of AITEX by email [email protected] or visit our website aitex.es/sustainability.  UNIT 4 The American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM] has developed body measurements for men, women, and children as per ASTM standards as follows and are available from ASTM. ASTM (PGNO 244) American Society for Testing Materials International (ASTM Intl) www.astm.org Organized in 1898, ASTM International has grown into one of the largest voluntary standards development systems in the world. ASTM is a not-for- profit organization that provides a forum for producers, users, ultimate consumers, and those having a general interest, such as representatives of government and academia, to meet on common ground and write standards for materials, products, systems, and services. From the work of 132 standards-writing committees, ASTM publishes standard test methods, specifications, guides, classifications, and terminology. ASTM's standard development activities encompass metals, paints, plastics, textiles, petroleum, construction, energy, the environment, consumer products, medical services and devices, computerized systems, electronics etc. ASTM headquarters has no technical research or testing facilities; such work is done voluntarily by 35,000 technically qualified ASTM members located throughout the world. More than 9,100 ASTM standards are published each year in the 71 volumes of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards. These standards and related information are sold throughout the world. ASTM develops six principal types of full-consensus standards as follows [ASTM 1999]: (a) Standard Test Method-a definitive procedure for the identification, measurement, and evaluation of one or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material, product, system, or service that produces a test result. (b) Standard Specification-a precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, system, or service that also indicates the procedures for determining whether each of the requirements is satisfied. (c) Standard Practice a definitive procedure for performing one or more specific operations or functions that does not produce a test result. (d) Standard Terminology-a document composed of terms its definitions and descriptions, explanations of symbols, abbreviations or acronyms. (e) Standard Guide a series of options or instructions that do not recommend a specific course of action. (f) Standard Classification-a systematic arrangement or division of materials, products, systems, or services into groups based on similar characteristics such as origin, composition, properties, or use. ASTM International offers web-based training for its members on standards and other related technical information. A list of ASTM standards and specifications that may be of some interest to apparel manufacturers are listed later in this chapter.  BSI (PGNO 245) British Standards Institution (BSI) www.bsi-global.com The British Standards Institution (BSI) is a national standard body for the United Kingdom, independent of government, industry and trade associations. The BSI became the world's first national standards body after it has been established in 1901 as the Engineering Standards Committee. The BSI pioneered international collaboration on standards writing as early as 1910 and by 1946 was instrumental in the formation of the international standards body, ISO. In 1979 the BSI produced the world's first management systems standard BS 5750. This standard formed the prototype for the ISO 9000 series. The BSI launched the world's first environmental management standard, BS 7750, which was adopted as ISO 14000 in 1976. The BSI produces independent standards through a committee process. The committee process used to draft standards was devised to avoid conflict of interest and to allow all relevant groups to participate in the formulation of a standard. When consensus is reached by a committee, a draft standard is put forward for public debate. To be certain that a standard meet the needs of all interested parties, from manufacturers, retailers to end users; all interests need to be represented in its development. Technical committees developing British standards are made up of volunteers-people of all ages and professions, including consumer representatives. British standards are national guidelines for products ranging from toys to digital audio equipment, for services like complaint management and data protection. Most standards are voluntary although they can be made mandatory by law or regulation. If industry asks for a standard to be reviewed, BSI can facilitate this process. All standards are reviewed every five years, and if a standard is unworkable or no longer relevant it can be redrafted or replaced. BS 6476:1984 British Standard Guide to Garment quality and relevant British Standards may be of some interest to apparel manufacturers. ISO (PGNO 246) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) www.iso.ch or www.iso.org The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies from some 120 countries, one from each country. ISO is a non-governmental organization established in 1947. The mission of ISO is to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world with a view to facilitating international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activities. ISO's work results in international agreements which are published as International Standards. At any one time there are about 7,000 projects and around 200,000 people contributing to ISO standards development. ISO is a word derived from Greek word "isos", meaning "equal," which is the root of the prefix "iso" that occurs in a host of terms, such as "isometric' (of equal measure or dimensions) and "isonomy" (equal of laws, of people before the law). From "equal" to "standard", the line of thinking that led to the choice of "ISO" as the name of the organization is easy to follow. In addition, the name ISO is used around the world to denote the organization, thus avoiding the plethora of acronyms resulting from the translation of "International Organization for Standardization" into the different national languages of members. The differences in the standards from country to country and region to region can contribute to so called "technical barriers to trade". Export oriented industries have always felt the need to agree on world standards to help international trade. This was the origin of the establishment of ISO. International standardization is now well established technologies in such diverse field as information processing and communications, textiles, packaging, distribution of goods, energy production and utilization, shipbuilding, banking and financial services. It gain importance in all sectors of industrial activity for the foreseeable future. An excellent overview of how ISO standards are developed is available on the ISO website www.iso.org/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/whowhenhow/ how.html A number of ISO standards of interest to apparel manufacturers are listed later in this chapter. Market for ISO Certification: As every day passes by, global competition is heating up. Textile and apparel industries are in the midst of major changes. To keep pace with the market scenario, industries rely more on quality and innovative fabrics, and apparels, and quick response to the needs of the customer. Innovations in the fields of nanotextiles, nonwovens, electro textiles, medical textiles, and geo textiles are providing new opportunities for the manufacturers and tap the market. Simultaneously, these opportunities also encompass them with critical challenges. Organizations today engage in many international trade activities, and this certification proves a pre-requisite for their survival in international competition. ISO certification helps the companies in market creation and penetration.