Unit 1 First Civilizations.pdf

The First Civilizations and Empires Prehistory–A.D. 500 Why It Matters For hundreds of thousands of years, human beings survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering...

The First Civilizations and Empires Prehistory–A.D. 500 Why It Matters For hundreds of thousands of years, human beings survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering food and supplies in an often hostile environment. In the space of a few thousand years, human beings began to master the art of growing food crops. As more food was produced, the population grew, and people began to live in cities, form governments, and develop writing and art. Historians call this process the beginning of civilization. THE FIRST HUMANS CHAPTER 1 Prehistory–3500 B.C. WESTERN ASIA AND EGYPT CHAPTER 2 3500–500 B.C. INDIA AND CHINA CHAPTER 3 3000 B.C.–A.D. 500 ANCIENT GREECE CHAPTER 4 1900–133 B.C. ROME AND THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY CHAPTER 5 600 B.C.–A.D. 500 The “Maiden Porch” of the Erechtheion, overlooking the city of Athens, Greece, is an example of Greek architecture from the fifth century B.C. age fotostock/SuperStock  1 age fotostock/SuperStock  The First Humans Prehistory–3500 B.C. Section 1 Early Humans Section 2 The Neolithic Revolution and the Rise of Civilization MAKING CONNECTIONS What is civilization? These cave paintings in Lascaux, France, illustrate the animals early people hunted 17,000 years ago during the Ice Age. Images like these give us glimpses into the life of early humans. In this chapter you will learn how humans gradually shifted from temporary to permanent settlements and began establishing civilizations. How do you think the first humans got their food? How would you define civilization? c. 1,500,000 B.C. c. 3,000,000 B.C. Homo erectus appears Australopithecines flourish in Africa THE WORLD 3,500,000 B.C. 2,000,000 B.C. 200,000 B.C. c. 2,500,000 B.C. c. 250,000 B.C. Paleolithic humans Homo sapiens carve with stone tools species develops 2 (l) Charles & Josette Lenars/CORBIS, (r) Pascal Goetgheluck/Photo Researchers  Period Tools Hunting Art Neolithic Age c. 100,000 B.C. Describing Create Neanderthals living a Three-Tab Book to BrAgoneze c. 8000 B.C. record aspects of in Germany Systematic agriculture tools, hunting, and develops art that occurred during the Neolithic Age and the Bronze Age. Conduct additional research to add facts, 150,000 B.C. 10,000 B.C. 3500 B.C. illustrations, or maps to your Foldable. c. 8000 B.C. 3000 B.C. Neolithic humans Bronze Age practice burial rituals begins (ISTORY /.,).% Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 1. (l) Sissie Brimberg/National Geographic/Getty Images, (r) Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS  Early Humans Where did early humans live? How did they live, and what GUIDE TO READING happened to them? To answer these questions, scientists study The BIG Idea the evidence left by prehistoric people. Although researchers Physical Geography Human life devel- have new and better ways of studying the past, there is much oped in different stages over millions of years and we still do not know. by 10,000 B.C., Homo sapiens sapiens had spread throughout the world. Content Vocabulary prehistory (p. 4) Australopithecus (p. 7) Before History archaeology (p. 4) Homo sapiens sapiens (p. 7) Scientists use fossils and artifacts as clues to how early humans lived. artifact (p. 4) anthropology (p. 4) “out-of-Africa” theory HISTORY & YOU What would people in the future think of American culture fossil (p. 4) (p. 7) based on what we leave behind? hominid (p. 6) Historians rely mostly on documents, or written records, to cre- Academic Vocabulary ate their pictures of the past. However, no written records exist for theory (p. 4) survive (p. 8) the prehistory of humankind. In fact, prehistory means the time before writing was developed. The story of prehistoric humans People and Places depends on archaeological and, more recently, biological evidence. Olduvai Gorge (p. 6) Archaeologists and anthropologists use this information to create Paleolithic Age (p. 8) theories about our early past. Reading Strategy Summarizing Information As you Archaeology and Anthropology read, create a chart like the one below to help you Archaeology is the study of past societies through analysis of study. what people left behind. Archeologists dig up and examine Tool Effect artifacts—objects made by humans. Artifacts may be tools, weapons, art, and even buildings made by early humans. Anthropology is the study of human life and culture. Culture includes what people wear, how they organize their society, and what they value. Anthropologists use artifacts and human fossils to create a picture of peoples’ everyday lives. Fossils are rocklike remains of biological organisms—a leaf imprint or a skeleton. Archaeologists and anthropologists have developed scientific methods to carry out their work. They excavate, or dig up land, at sites around the globe to uncover fossil remains of early humans, ancient cities, burial grounds, and other objects. The examination and analysis of these remains give archaeologists a better under- standing of ancient societies. By examining artifacts such as pottery, tools, and weapons, for example, these scientists learn about the social and military structures of a society. By analyzing bones, skins, and plant seeds, they are able to piece together the diet and activities of early people. One of the most important and difficult jobs of both archaeologists and anthropologists is dating their finds. 4  20°W 0° 20°E ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS 40°E 60°E 1856: Johann Fuhlrott discovers Homo sapiens neanderthalensis 1940: French children find cave paintings Neanderthal Lascaux EUROPE 1958: James Mellaart discovers ASIA 0 1,000 kilometers Altamira Caves Cave Neolithic farming village of Çatalhüyük. Chauvet 0 1,000 miles Miller projection Cave 40°N Çatalhüyük 1879: Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola and his daughter find cave paintings Med iterra nean Se a 1994: Jean-Marie Chauvet discovers cave paintings ATLANTIC OCEAN 1974: Johanson team discovers “Lucy” Re 20°N dS 1. Location On which continent were ea most of the hominid bones found? Arabian Sea Hadar 2. Place The “out-of-Africa” theory N states that hominids did not AFRICA spread outside of Africa until they 1960: Leakey team W E were capable of tool use. How do discovers Homo habilis the sites depicted in Europe sup- S port this theory? EQUATOR 1978: Leakey team discovers 0° “Laetoli footprints” Olduvai Gorge See StudentWorks™ Plus INDIAN OCEAN or glencoe.com. Laetoli Dating Artifacts and Fossils Microscopic and biological analyses of Dating human fossils and artifacts helps organic remains—such as blood, hairs, and scientists understand when and where the plant tissues left on tools and weapons— first humans lived. give scientists still more information. Such One method used to determine age is analyses have shown that blood molecules radiocarbon dating. All living things may survive millions of years. This recent absorb a small amount of radioactive car- scientific discovery is especially useful in bon, or C-14, from the atmosphere. After a telling us more about humans, their use of living thing dies, it slowly loses C-14. By tools, and the animals they killed. Ancient measuring the amount left in an object, a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is providing scientist can figure its age. This method is new information on human evolution. The accurate for objects no more than about analysis of plant remains on stone tools 50,000 years old. yields evidence on the history of farming. For objects dating back to 200,000 years All of these techniques give us insight into ago, scientists can make relatively precise the lives of early peoples. measurements using thermo-lumines- cence. This measures the light given off by ✓Reading Check Describing How do electrons trapped in the soil surrounding archaeologists and anthropologists determine the ages fossils and artifacts. of fossils and artifacts? CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 5  Early Development (l) Topham/The Image Works, (r) Robert Campbell/CORBIS SYGMA Louis and Mary Leakey spent most of their lives searching for clues about early Using remains and technology, scien- human life. They made a dramatic discovery tists identify important stages in human development. of a skeleton at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa. According to their son: HISTORY & YOU How did humans change? Read about the early stages of human development. PRIMARY SOURCE In recent decades, modern science has “My father was ill that morning, so my mother produced a clearer picture of how early set out alone... but found very little until just before humans developed. Pieces of the puzzle noon, when she noticed a scrap of enormously are still missing, however. When a new thick bone protruding from beneath the surface. skull or skeleton is unearthed, scientists She instantly realized that it was part of a hominid may find that they have to revise their skull—and that two teeth were embedded in the ideas about prehistoric human life. rock just above it. Elated, she drove back to camp to tell my father Louis. As he remembered it, she rushed in crying, ‘I’ve got him! I’ve got him! I’ve Hominids to Homo Sapiens got him!’” What is a hominid? A hominid was a —Richard Leakey, TIME, July 17, 1959 humanlike creature that walked upright. The earliest hominids lived in Africa four Leakey’s discovery of a hominid in 1959 million years ago. They existed for millions was the oldest at that time—about 1.8 million of years, slowly changing over time. years old. Louis Leakey Mary Leakey Richard Leakey Louise Leakey Meave Leakey 1903–1972 1913–1996 Paleoanthropologists 1942–present 1972–present 1942–present Paleoanthropologists Paleoanthropologists study early human society. For three Richard, a son of Louis and Mary, found his first fossil at age generations, beginning with the husband and wife team of six. Meave, a zoologist, joined Richard’s expedition in 1969. Louis and Mary, the Leakeys have searched for early human Richard and Meave focused their search at Koobi Fora, near Lake remains in Africa. Turkana in Kenya. Over a thirty-year period, this Leakey team Born in Kenya, Louis discovered some stone tools and an made 200 significant fossil finds. interest in prehistory. In the 1930’s, Louis and Mary began Meave and Louise Leakey were named National Geographic looking for evidence of early humans at Olduvai Gorge. Mary is Society’s explorers-in-residence in 2002. The Leakey mother and credited with discovering Proconsul africanus in 1948, Australo- daughter paleontologists found a 3.5 million-year-old skull near pithecus boisei in 1959, Homo habilis in 1960, and an 89-foot- Turkana. Why were the Leakeys’ fossil finds significant? long trail of early human footprints called the “Laetoli footprints” in 1979. What do the Leakeys’ finds illustrate about where early human life began?  For decades, scientists assumed these in Germany, the earliest remains of Nean- earliest of upright creatures must also derthals, or Neandertals, were found. They have used tools. In 1974, Donald Johanson probably lived between 100,000 b.c. and challenged this theory when his team 30,000 b.c. Other Neanderthal remains found a new skeleton in Ethiopia. Johanson have been found in Europe and Turkey. nicknamed the female skeleton “Lucy” Besides using many kinds of stone tools, and suggested that she was the common European Neanderthals made their ancestor for several types of early human clothes from animal skins. Neanderthals life. Scientists called this type of hominid seem to be the first early people to bury Australopithecus (aw STRAY loh PIH their dead. According to some scholars, thuh CUS), or “southern ape.” It flour- burying the dead indicates a belief in an ished in eastern and southern Africa. afterlife. In a 1991 interview, Johanson explained why “Lucy” changed the ideas of many scientists about hominids that walked Homo Sapiens Sapiens upright: The second group descended from Homo sapiens is Homo sapiens sapiens, meaning PRIMARY SOURCE “wise, wise human.” These are the first to have an anatomy similar to people today. “People felt that there were a number of Physical evidence suggests that Homo evolutionary changes, which all went together. sapiens sapiens appeared in Africa between That our ancestors stood up to free their hands so 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. They proba- that they could make and use stone tools. In order bly spread out of Africa to other parts of the to make and use stone tools, they had to have large brains... Here comes Lucy, about 3.5 million world about 100,000 years ago, replacing years old... very small brain,... and we have populations of earlier hominids in Europe never found any stone tool, stone artifacts, and Asia. This is referred to as the “out-of- associated with her species. Yet she is walking Africa” theory (or replacement theory). upright. So it appears that... walking on two Another theory, the multiregional model, legs, precedes by perhaps as much as a million states that the development from earlier and a half years, the manufacture of stone tools hominids to anatomically modern humans and the expansion of the brain.” occurred in different locations in Africa, —Donald Johanson, 1991 interview Asia, and Europe. The timing and reasons for early human migrations are still debated From 2.5 to 1.6 million years ago, a more among scholars. advanced hominid developed with a some- By 30,000 b.c., Homo sapiens sapiens had what larger brain. This hominid was replaced the Neanderthals. The Neander- named Homo habilis, meaning “handy thals died out, possibly as a result of human.” Homo habilis may have used stone conflicts with Homo sapiens sapiens. The tools. The earliest remains of this hominid spread of these first modern humans was a were discovered near Olduvai Gorge. slow process. Over many thousands of Another hominid, Homo erectus, “upright years, Homo sapiens sapiens spread over the human,” existed from 1.8 million to 100,000 globe as they searched for food and new years ago. Although other hominids hunting grounds. In a whole generation, walked on two legs, Homo erectus had arms they may have moved only two to three and legs in modern human proportion. miles. Over hundreds of thousands of Remains in Asia show that Homo erectus years, this was enough to populate the was probably the first hominid to leave world. Today, all humans, whether they Africa. are Europeans, Australian Aborigines Around 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens (A buh RIJ nees), or Africans, belong to emerged. Homo sapiens, “wise human,” the same subgroup of human beings. showed rapid brain growth and mastered fire. Two kinds of early humans descended ✓Reading Check Summarizing Identify and from Homo sapiens: Neanderthals and Homo describe all the important stages in early human sapiens sapiens. In the Neanderthal, a valley development. CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 7  The Paleolithic Age Early humans used sharp-edged tools to cut up plants, dig up roots, and cut branches Early humans used fire, made tools, to build simple shelters. Scraping tools were and adapted to survive. used to clean animal hides for clothing and shelter. By the end of the Paleolithic period, HISTORY & YOU Could you live in the wild with only tools you made? Read how early humans man- there is evidence of such refined tools as aged to survive. bone needles. These needles could be used for making nets and baskets and even sew- ing hides together for clothing. Because Paleolithic people were hunters One of the basic distinguishing features and gatherers, they had to follow animal of the human species is the ability to make migrations and vegetation cycles. Paleo- tools. The term Paleolithic Age is used to lithic humans were nomads—people who designate the early period of human move from place to place to survive. history (approximately 2,500,000 to 10,000 Archaeologists and anthropologists think b.c.) in which humans used simple stone these nomads probably lived in small tools. Paleolithic is Greek for “old stone,” groups of twenty or thirty. Hunting and the Paleolithic Age is sometimes called depended on careful observation of animal the Old Stone Age. behavior patterns and demanded group cooperation for success. Hunting and Gathering For hundreds of thousands of years, humans relied on hunting and gathering The Roles of Men and Women for their daily food. Paleolithic peoples The main job of Paleolithic peoples was had a close relationship with their environ- finding enough to eat. Both men and women ment. They came to know what animals to were responsible for finding the food hunt and what plants to eat. They gathered needed for survival. Paleolithic parents wild nuts, berries, fruits, wild grains, and passed on their practices, skills, and tools green plants. Around the world, they to their children to ensure the survival of hunted and ate various animals, including later generations. buffalo, horses, bison, and reindeer. In Since women bore and raised children, coastal areas, fish and shellfish provided a they probably stayed closer to camp. They rich source of food. played an important role in acquiring food by gathering berries, nuts, roots, and grains. Women taught the children The Paleolithic Way of Life which foods were edible. They trapped Early humans were able to sustain them- small animals and kept the camp safe. selves through the use of stone tools. To In the constant search for food, men had make such tools, early people used very to travel far from camp to hunt herds of hard stones, such as flint. They used one large animals. What the women caught stone to chip away parts of another, creat- and gathered had to feed the group if there ing an edge. Hand axes of various kinds— was no game. Because both men and pointed tools with one or more cutting women were responsible for finding and edges—were the most common. Hand axes acquiring the food needed to sustain life, eventually were set in wooden handles, many scientists believe there was equality making them easier to use. By attaching between them. It is likely that both men wooden poles to spear points and harden- and women made decisions that affected ing the tips in fire, humans created spears the activities of the Paleolithic group. to kill large animals. Over the years, Paleolithic hunters devel- oped better tools. The invention of the spear, Adapting to Survive and later the bow and arrow, made hunting Groups of Paleolithic people, especially much easier. Harpoons and fishhooks made those groups who lived in cold climates, of bone increased the catch of fish. found shelter in natural caves. Over a 8 SECTION 1 Early Humans period of time, people created new types Use of Fire of shelter as well. Perhaps most common Another important result from the was a simple structure made of wood poles migration of early hominids was the use of or sticks covered with animal hides. In fire. As early hominids moved from the places where wood was scarce, they might tropics into colder regions, they needed to use the large bones of mammoths to build adjust to new climate conditions. In frames that were then covered by animal response, Homo erectus first learned to hides. The systematic use of fire made it make fires. Archaeologists have discov- possible to provide a source of both light ered the piled remains of ashes in caves and heat within both the caves and the that prove that Paleolithic people used fire handmade structures in which they lived. systematically as long ago as 500,000 years. Field Archaeology: How We Learn about the Spread of Early Humans Archaeologists use scientific methods to learn more about prehistory. The techniques and materials used on a “dig” combine older tools and modern technology. First archaeologists search computer databases, maps, aerial photos, and satellite images to find a promising site. At the site, the team will Laptops make record the exact location with a global the dig easier. positioning device. Then using survey equipment, they map the area and set up a grid to pinpoint the location and depths of the finds. Workers still use trowels and brushes to unearth artifacts. Once an object is found, archaeologists record it in their field notes. Then they clean, label, photograph, and enter the find on a database. A rough “dating” is made using stratigraphy, indicating age by the soil layer it was found in. Other tests—radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, DNA, ther- moluminescence, and dendrochronology— are done in a lab. Hand-held GPS (Global Positioning System) 1. Explaining Why does it take archaeol- ogists many years to exavate a site? 2. Drawing Conclusions How does archaeology provide information for maps like the one on page 5? At an excavation of an Inca cemetery near Lima, Peru, a man brushes dirt from a skull with hair still intact. (l) Ira Block/National Geographic/Getty Images, (tr) photolibrary.com/Index Open, (br) Cordelia Molloy/Photo Researchers  Chauvet Cave Bay Lascaux of Caves Biscay FRANCE Chauvet Altamira Cave Paleolithic artists drew dangerous Cave mammoths, rhinos, cave bears, and cave lions, but rarely depicted themselves. SPAIN Chauvet’s constant temperature of 56º F with 99 percent humidity helped preserve the paintings. Although people never lived there, Chauvet contains remnants of fires, used to produce charcoal for drawing. Around 35,000 years ago, Ice Age artists painted images in caves. This 20-foot (6-m)-long “Panel of Horses” was found in Chauvet Cave in southern France. 1. Analyzing What does the “Panel of Horses” depict? 2. Comparing What similarities do you see between animals in the cave art and those of today? At a Homo erectus site in northern China, independently throughout the world, in remnants of hearths, ashes, charcoal, and different places at different times. Archae- charred bones have been dated to 400,000 ologists lack concrete evidence on how years ago. early peoples started fires. They have been Fire not only gave warmth, but kept wild able to examine the methods used by tra- animals away from the campsite. Armed ditional peoples. On that basis, archaeolo- with spears, hunters used fire to flush out gists deduce that the earliest humans used wild pigs for the kill. People gathered friction to start fires. around the fire to trade stories and to cook. Eventually, some Paleolithic peoples Cooked food tasted better, lasted longer, developed sturdy, drill-like wooden and was easier to chew and digest (in the devices to start fires. Other early humans case of some plants, such as wild grains), discovered that a certain stone, iron so it seems likely that nutrition improved. pyrites, gave off a spark when struck Scholars believe that the discovery of a against a rock and that spark could ignite means for starting fires occurred dry grass or leaves. 10 SECTION 1 Early Humans Jean Clottes The Ice Ages Having fire to create a source of heat was especially important when Ice Age conditions descended on the Paleolithic world. The most recent Ice Age began about 100,000 b.c. and ended in about 8000 b.c. During this time, Vocabulary sheets of thick ice covered large parts of Europe, Asia, and 1. Explain the significance of: prehistory, North America. As sea levels went down, people migrated archaeology, artifact, anthropology, fossil, across land bridges that had not existed before. hominid, Olduvai Gorge, Australopithecus, Ice Age conditions posed a serious threat to human life, Homo sapiens sapiens, “out-of-Africa” and the ability to adapt was crucial to human survival. theory, Paleolithic Age. The use of fire, for example, reminds us that early humans sometimes adapted not by changing themselves to better Main Ideas fit their environment but by changing the environment. 2. Discuss what kinds of materials archaeologists use to study prehistory. Creating Art 3. Explain what the caves of Lascaux suggest about early human society. The importance of art to human life is basic. Art existed even in prehistory among the hunters and gatherers of the 4. Create a diagram like the one shown Paleolithic Age. In 1940, a bad storm near Lascaux below to compare and contrast (la SKOH) in southern France uprooted a large tree, australopithecus and Neanderthal. revealing a cave. French children playing nearby soon found the cave and the paintings inside. Many of these paintings had deteriorated, but scientists used special Australopithecus Neanderthal tools to determine what is being depicted, such as horses, bulls, and stags. Another famous discovery was made in Spain in 1879 when a little girl wandered into a cave on her grandfa- Critical Thinking ther’s farm near Altamira. Like many other caves covered 5. The BIG Idea Explaining Explain the with Paleolithic art, the cave near Altamira shows evi- difference between the “out-of-Africa” and dence that the paintings may have been created over a multiregional theories. span of time, not all at once. Scientists can date the art 6. Comparing Discuss the difference between based on pigments from the paintings. the roles of Paleolithic men and women. In 1994, Jean-Marie Chauvet and his friends discovered 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the cave paintings in southern France. Carbon dating showed paintings shown on page 10. What do they works at Chauvet Cave were nearly twice as old as those tell you about human/animal interactions at Lascaux and Altamira, but the drawings were more during the Paleolithic Age? advanced. Scholars had assumed the opposite—that the earliest art would be crude and gradually would become Writing About History more detailed. 8. Descriptive Writing Imagine you are part Using stone lamps filled with animal fat to light the of an archaeological team at a recently caves, early artists painted with fingers, twigs, and even discovered site, keeping a daily journal. blew paint through hollow reeds. They mixed mineral Describe the conditions of the site, the sorts ores with animal fat to make red, yellow, and black paint. of artifacts you are finding, and what you A variety of realistically painted animals cover the caves. hope to find based on the evidence so far. Read magazine articles or books in a library Few humans appear in these paintings, and when they do or on the Web to help you with this project. appear, they are drawn as sticklike figures. This has led some scholars to think the work was done for a magical or religious ritual to bring success in hunting. Others believe the paintings were made simply to please the eye. Recent discoveries of art by early humans show that prehis- toric art existed in other areas of the world. (ISTORY /.,).% For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World ✓Reading Check Identifying What are two important History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central. innovations of Paleolithic peoples? 11  Early Housing What a house looks like has much to do with where it is located, when it was built, and what materials were available. Zhoukoudianzhen Cave, in China, shows evidence of use from around 700,000 to around 200,000 years ago. Pincevent, in modern-day France, shows how early humans lived in northern Europe at the end of the Ice Age, around 13,000 years ago. And Çatalhüyük, in modern-day Turkey, was an early farming village from 6700 to 5700 B.C. ZHOUKOUDIANZHEN CAVE The remains of 40 Homo PINCEVENT SITE erectus men, women, and Pincevent was a summer children were found here. camp near water and food sources, such as reindeer and horses. These early humans lived in round tents made of animal skins held up by wooden poles. They probably ate nuts, berries, insects, reptiles, rats, birds, eggs, and large mammals. The first evidence of the use of fire was 20 feet of ash from c. 500,000 years ago. Rings of stone were used to hold the tent edges down. Hearthstones, animal bones, and flint tools show where the tents were located. TEMPORARY SETTLEMENTS These Homo erectus Before around 8000 B.C., early humans were nomads who lived in used wood, bamboo, and temporary settlements. They moved every season, migrating with the stone tools to scrape, animals they hunted. Early humans used caves for shelter. If they lived in a chop, and cut. place without rock outcroppings, they made their homes out of available materials. Tents made of animal bones or wood were covered with animal hides or turf. 12  Pincevent Zhoukoudianzhen EUROPE ASIA PACIFIC AFRICA Çatalhüyük OCEAN ÇATALHÜYÜK ATLANTIC OCEAN INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA The villagers buried their Some houses had yards— dead beneath platforms probably for domesticated in their houses. animals like cattle and dogs. When the mud-brick homes were Because there were no streets damaged, villagers knocked them down and the houses were connected, and rebuilt on top. The layers of homes people used ladders to enter created a mound, or hüyük. their homes from the rooftops. This construction style made the village easier to defend. ANALYZING VISUALS PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS 1. Comparing Why are there similarities between the After 8000 B.C., people began settling in one place, planting crops homes despite the differ- and raising livestock. These farming settlements began in river valleys ences in era and location? in the Fertile Crescent and in Turkey. Rivers provided water for irriga- 2. Analyzing What are three tion and transportation. Permanent walls provided protection from major differences between the weather, as well as from other humans—many of whom were still temporary and permanent nomads—and animals. settlements? 13  The Neolithic Revolution The transition of humans from nomadic hunters to city GUIDE TO READING dwellers is a major turning point in history. Although the The BIG Idea development of civilization was gradual, historians can Ideas, Beliefs, and Values pinpoint the beginning of this change. Because change is Systematic agriculture brought huge economic, revolutionary when it requires a dramatic effort, this Neolithic political, and social changes for early humans. Revolution was a revolutionary change. Content Vocabulary systematic culture (p. 18) agriculture (p. 14) domestication (p. 14) civilization (p. 18) monarch (p. 18) The Neolithic Revolution artisan (p. 16) priest (p. 19) Civilization developed from the agricultural revolution of the Neolithic Age. Academic Vocabulary HISTORY & YOU How did early American pioneers meet their basic needs? Read revolution (p. 14) role (p. 16) how the Neolithic farmers affected human progress. People and Places Neolithic Revolution (p. 14) Mesoamericans (p. 15) The end of the last Ice Age, around 8000 b.c., was followed by Çatalhüyük (p. 16) what is called the Neolithic Revolution—that is, the revolution Bronze Age (p. 16) that occurred in the Neolithic Age, the period of human history Iron Age (p. 16) from 8000 to 4000 b.c. The word Neolithic is Greek for “new stone.” The name New Stone Age, however, is somewhat misleading. The Reading Strategy real change in the Neolithic Revolution was the shift from the Comparing and Contrasting As you hunting of animals and the gathering of food to the keeping of read, create a chart like the one below to help you animals and the growing of food on a regular basis—what we call study. systematic agriculture. Early humans had to move from place to place, following the 1. 4. 2. herds and finding plants. During the Neolithic Age, humans 5. 3. began planting crops, providing a regular food source. Domesti- 6. cation of animals, adapting them for human use, added a reliable source of meat, milk, and wool. Animals could also be used to do work. Growing crops and taming food-producing animals caused an agricultural revolution. Because there was enough food, humans had more control over their lives. It also meant they could give up their nomadic ways of life and begin to live in settled communities. Some historians believe this revolution was the sin- gle most important development in human history. This shift to food producing from hunting and gathering was not as sudden as was once believed. During the Mesolithic Age (“Middle Stone Age,” about 10,000 to 7000 b.c.) there was a gradual shift from the old food-gathering and hunting economy to a food-producing one. There was also a gradual taming of animals. Moreover, throughout the Neolithic period, hunting and gathering remained a way of life for many people around the world. 14  The Neolithic Agricultural Revolution made the first cities possible. In the United States and other developed countries, the agricultural revolution continues. American farmers produce more food than ever before to support most Americans, who live in cities or suburbs. Cities continue to spread as farmland shrinks. Until now, most Americans have never raised their own food or faced food shortages. Productivity means high crop yields produced on less land by fewer people. High productivity creates surpluses, which may Large crops are harvested more be stored or traded. quickly due to modern machinery. The United States exports billions of dollars worth of agricultural products annually. Number of Farms in the U.S., 1940–2004 7 6.35 Farms (in millions) 6 5.65 5 3.96 4   2.95 3 2.44 2.15 2.17  2.11   2 1 1. Examining Which period shows the largest 0 decrease in farms? 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2004 2. Drawing Conclusions What is the impact Year of urbanization on farming? Source: National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture; The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2006. The Growing of Crops system emerged. There, people grew root crops called tubers, such as yams, and tree Between 8000 and 5000 b.c., systematic crops, such as bananas. Farming wheat and agriculture developed in various parts of barley also moved eastward into India the world. In Southwest Asia, people began between 7000 and 5000 b.c. growing wheat and barley and domesti- By 5000 b.c., farmers in Southeast Asia cating pigs, cows, goats, and sheep by 8000 were growing rice. From there, rice farm- b.c. From there, farming spread into South- ing spread into southern China. By 6000 eastern Europe. By 4000 b.c., farming was b.c., farming millet and domesticating well established in central Europe and the dogs and pigs seem to have been estab- coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea. lished in northern China. In the Western By 6000 b.c., the cultivation of wheat and Hemisphere, Mesoamericans—inhabit- barley had spread into the Nile Valley of ants of present-day Mexico and Central Egypt. These crops soon spread up the Nile America—grew beans, squash, and maize. to other areas of Africa—Sudan and Ethio- They also domesticated dogs and fowl in pia. In central Africa, a separate farming this period between 7000 and 5000 b.c. CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 15 Gail Mooney/Masterfile  Neolithic Farming Villages used to make sickles and hoes for farming. Growing crops on a regular basis gave Eventually, many of the food plants still in rise to more permanent settlements called use today began to be cultivated. Some Neolithic farming villages. These villages plants, such as flax and cotton, were used appeared in Europe, India, Egypt, China, to make yarn and cloth. and Mesoamerica. The oldest and biggest The change to systematic agriculture also of these, however, were located in South- had consequences for how men and women west Asia. Jericho, in Palestine, near the related to one another. Men became more Dead Sea, was in existence by 8000 b.c. active in farming and herding animals, jobs Çatalhüyük (CHAH tuhl hoo YOOK) that took them away from the settlement. in modern Turkey was an even larger Instead of the whole family moving as in community covering 32 acres. Between earlier times, women remained behind. 6700 and 5700 b.c., the city probably had They cared for children, wove cloth for about 6,000 inhabitants. Their simple mud clothes, and did other tasks that kept them brick houses were built so close together in one place. As men took on more and that there were few streets. People walked more responsibility for obtaining food and on the roofs and entered their homes protecting the settlement, they began to through holes in the rooftops. play a more dominant role in society. Archaeologists have found a dozen products that were grown outside the city walls, including fruits, nuts, and three The End of the Neolithic Age kinds of wheat. Domesticated animals pro- Between 4000 and 3000 b.c., new develop- vided meat, milk, and hides. Scenes on the ments began to affect some Neolithic walls of the city’s ruins show that the peo- towns. Even before 4000 b.c., craftspeople ple also hunted. discovered that by heating metal-bearing As a result of the steady food supply, rocks they could turn the metal to liquid. people in Çatalhüyük had a food surplus. The liquid metal could then be poured into This meant people could enter other occu- molds, or casts, to make tools and weap- pations than farming. Some people ons. The use of metals marked a new level became artisans. These skilled workers of control over the environment. made products such as weapons and jew- Copper was the first metal to be used in elry and traded them with neighboring making tools. After 4000 b.c., artisans in peoples. This exposed the people of Çat- western Asia discovered that combining alhüyük to the wider world. copper and tin created bronze—a metal Besides homes, Çatalhüyük had special harder and more durable than copper. buildings that were shrines containing fig- The widespread use of bronze led to the ures of gods and goddesses. Statues of Bronze Age from around 3000 to 1200 b.c. women giving birth or nursing a child have After about 1000 b.c., the use of iron tools also been found there. Both the shrines and and weapons became common, an era the statues point to the growing role of known as the Iron Age. religion in the lives of Neolithic peoples. The Neolithic Age set the stage for major changes to come. As people mastered farm- Neolithic Revolution—Effects ing, some villages developed more com- The Neolithic agricultural revolution plex and wealthier societies. To protect caused dramatic changes that affected their wealth they built armies and city how people would live to the present day. walls. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, Once people began settling in villages or large numbers of people were concentrated towns, they saw the need to build walls in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, for protection and storehouses for goods. India, and China. These farming villages Storing surplus products encouraged trade. led to the development of cities. Trading encouraged more people to learn crafts. This led to the division of labor. As artisans became more skilled, they ✓Reading Check Identifying What was the made more refined tools. Flint blades were result of systematic agriculture? 16 SECTION 2 The Neolithic Revolution  NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION The Neolithic Revolution was the beginning of systematic agriculture. This revolution was marked by the establishment and growth of farming villages such as Jericho. Located near a spring, which made the land especially fertile, Jericho was established by 8000 B.C. It was one of the largest Neolithic farming villages, with an estimated population over 1,000. 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E CLE ARCTIC CIR SPREAD OF60FARMING °N NORTH AMERICA EUROPE ASIA 30°N TROPIC OF C PACIFIC ANCER OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN AFRICA EQUATOR 0° ATLANTIC SOUTH OCEAN INDIAN AMERICA OCEAN N TROPIC OF CAPRICOR 30°S AUSTRALIA N Development of 0 2,000 kilometers systematic agriculture: W E 0 2,000 miles Before 5000 B.C. S Winkel Tripel projection Before 2000 B.C. 60°S ANTARCTIC CIRCLE Before 1 B.C. ANTARCTICA Jericho’s tower might have been used for storage or as a watchtower to protect the Walls crops and animals. protected Jericho’s inhabitants. Domesticated animals provided meat, wool, and milk. 1. Drawing Conclusions Based on the map, what patterns do you see with the spread of systematic agriculture? 2. Making Connections How did Farmers used tools made out of farming improve early human life? stone and wood to harvest the crops they planted by hand. See StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.  Civilization Emerges Cities The first civilizations developed in river Some villages grew into cities and valleys where people could carry on the became early civilizations. large-scale farming that was needed to HISTORY & YOU What characteristics make our feed a large population. As farming became society a civilization? Learn which features defined abundant, more people would live in the early civilizations. city. New patterns of living soon emerged. Whether analyzing societies of the past Government or present, anthropologists describe the Growing numbers of people, the need to culture—the way of life—of a people in a maintain the food supply, and the need for certain time and place. From earliest times, defense soon led to the growth of govern- humans lived in small nomadic groups ments. Governments organize and regu- with simple cultures that helped them sur- late human activity. They also provide for vive. When humans settled in permanent smooth interaction between individuals villages, their cultures became more com- and groups. In the first civilizations, gov- plex. Gradually, more complex cultures ernments usually were led by monarchs— developed into a new form of human soci- kings or queens who rule a kingdom— who ety called civilization. organized armies to protect their popula- A civilization is a complex culture in tions and made laws to regulate their sub- which large numbers of human beings who jects’ lives. share a number of common elements. His- torians have identified the basic characteris- tics of civilizations. Six of the most important Religion characteristics are cities, government, reli- Important religious developments also gion, social structure, writing, and art. characterized the new urban civilizations. Bronze Age Artifacts Although these three artifacts were made during the same period, the Bronze Age, each is unique. They are different in origin, material, and subject. Each reveals valuable information about the civilization that created it. During China’s Shang dynasty, The Phaestos Disc, from around rulers had a 1600 B.C., probably came from monopoly on the Minoan civilization on Crete. bronze work. This The terra-cotta disc proves the gilded bronze head existence of a written Minoan could be the image of language, but no one has been This terra-cotta jug, a king or a god. able to translate the hieroglyphs. from around 1800 B.C., Created about 1200 B.C., the head was was in a tomb near the settlement of found in a pit with Jericho. Shaped like more than 50 similar a bird, the jug is artifacts. both functional and decorative. 1. Concluding What does the presence of artwork say about a culture? 2. Theorizing Why might the jug and bronze head have been buried in tombs or pits? (l) Art Archive/Heraklion Museum/Dagli Orti, (c) Jean-Louis Nou/akg-images, (r) O Louis Mazzatenta/National Geographic/Getty Images All of them developed religions to explain the forces of nature and their roles in the world. They believed that gods and goddesses were important to the community’s success. To win their favor, priests supervised rituals aimed at pleasing them. This gave the priests special power and made them very important peo- Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: systematic ple. Rulers also claimed that their power was based on agriculture, Neolithic Revolution, divine approval, and some rulers claimed to be divine. domestication, Mesoamericans, Çatalhüyük, artisan, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Social Structure culture, civilization, monarch, priest. A new social structure based on economic power also arose. Rulers and an upper class of priests, government Main Ideas officials, and warriors dominated society. Below this class 2. Identify what are three of the six was a large group of free people—farmers, artisans, and institutions or customs that people can craftspeople. At the bottom was a slave class. share in a distinct culture. The demand of the upper class for luxury items, such as 3. Label in geographic terms where the jewelry and pottery, encouraged artisans and craftspeople earliest civilizations developed. to create new products. As urban populations exported 4. Create a diagram like the one below to finished goods to neighboring populations in exchange show how changes during the Neolithic for raw materials, organized trade began to grow. Because Revolution led to the emergence of trade brought new civilizations into contact with one civilization. another, it often led to the transfer of new technology, such civilization as metals for tools and new farming techniques, from one region to another. By and large, however, the early river valley civiliza- Critical Thinking 5. The BIG Idea Explaining Why did tions developed independently. Each one was based on settled farming make it possible for cities developments connected to the agricultural revolution of to develop? the Neolithic Age and the cities that this revolution helped to produce. Taken together, the civilizations of Mesopota- 6. Describing What was the relationship between artistic activities, religion, and mia, Egypt, India, and China constituted nothing less than government during the rise of civilization? a revolutionary stage in the growth of human society. 7. Analyzing Visuals Look at the image of the gilded bronze head on page 18. What Writing does this piece of art reveal about what the Writing was an important feature in the life of these new Shang Dynasty valued? civilizations. Above all, rulers, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep accurate records. Of course, Writing About History not all civilizations depended on writing to keep records. 8. Expository Writing Conduct research on The Inca in Peru (see Chapter 11), for example, relied on Çatalhüyük or another early site of the well-trained memory experts to keep track of their impor- Neolithic period. Then write a short essay tant matters. Eventually, the earliest civilizations used explaining how people may have lived in writing for creative expression as well as for record keep- that city in its early history. You should ing. This produced the world’s first works of literature. include a description of the daily lives of different groups in the city—adults and Art children, farmers and artisans, leaders and ordinary people. Significant artistic activity was another feature of the new civilizations. Architects built temples and pyramids as places for worship or sacrifice, or for the burial of kings and other important people. Painters and sculptors por- trayed stories of nature. They also provided depictions of the rulers and gods they worshiped. (ISTORY /.,).% For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World ✓Reading Check Describing Describe the new social structure History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central. that arose in Neolithic cities. 19  Visual Summary You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com. Early humans learn to make Tools make hunting easier. tools and fire. Early humans become more efficient hunters. Cooking food over fire improves nutrition. Fire keeps humans warm in cooler climates. After the Ice Age ends, temperatures rise A steady food supply leads humans and humans begin to practice systematic to settle in farming villages. agriculture—the keeping of animals and Surplus food is stored. the growing of food on a regular basis. The villagers and food supply must be protected. Civilizations begin to develop in river valleys in Mesopotamia, Governments develop to organize Egypt, India, and China. and protect the cities. Not all villagers are needed for farming, so some become artisans, government workers, priests, artists, and scribes. Division of labor leads to a social structure. Surplus food and products are traded with other settlements. 20 CHAPTER 1 The First Humans  Assessment STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE TEST-TAKING TIP Make sure to read the entire question and each possible answer before deciding on the correct answer. Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. sentence. Section 1 (pp. 4–11) 1. Archeologists study , or objects made by humans. 5. Which type of scientist uses fossils and artifacts to study early A rivers humans? B animals A Chemists C artifacts B Physicists D oceans C Anthropologists D Geologists 2. Donald Johanson and his team found an example of a/an in Ethiopia. 6. Which hominids do scientists believe were probably the first A Homo habilis to leave Africa? B Australopithecus A Homo erectus C Homo erectus B Australopithecus D Neanderthal C Homo sapiens sapiens D Neaderthals 3. The keeping of animals and the growing of food on a regular basis is known as. 7. How did early humans adapt in order to survive? A systematic agriculture A Following animal migrations B domesticated agriculture B Painting cave art C Neolithic agriculture C Living in isolation D Paleolithic agriculture D Keeping records 4. were skilled workers who made products such as 8. Which invention made hunting easier for early humans? weapons and jewelry.