Unit_1_Chapter_from_textbook.pdf

T AF DR Human Lifespan Development 1 UNIT 1 Getting to know your unit Understanding human lifespan development, the different influences on an individual’s development and how this relates to their care need...

T AF DR Human Lifespan Development 1 UNIT 1 Getting to know your unit Understanding human lifespan development, the different influences on an individual’s development and how this relates to their care needs is Assessm ent important when you are establishing your career in the health or social You will be assesse d using care professions. Health and social care professionals meet and work an extern ally set written with a wide range of individuals who have diverse needs. task worth 90 marks. In this unit, you will be introduced to the biological, psychological and sociological theories associated with human lifespan development. You will explore the different aspects of physical, intellectual emotional and social development across an individual’s lifespan. You will examine factors affecting an individual’s growth and development such as the environment or genetic inheritance, and consider the positive and negative influences these have on development, including the impact on an individual’s concept of self. You will explore the physical effects of ageing and the theories that help to explain psychological changes. T How you will be assessed AF You will be assessed by a paper-based examination, lasting for 1 hour 30 minutes that is worth 90 marks. The examination will consist of short- and long-answer questions. The questions are intended to assess your understanding of growth and development throughout an individual’s lifespan and how this may be affected by personal and environmental factors, health and the effects of ageing. You will be expected to make reasoned connections between theories and models of human growth and development to demonstrate your understanding. You will give your answers in DR response to the information you are given in case studies about members of one family. 2 Human Lifespan Development  UNIT 1 Getting started W hat do you already know about lifespan development? Using the life stages infancy, early childhood and adolescence, write a short description about your development so far. For early and late adulthood, predict how you think your development will progress. Reflect at the end of this unit to see whether you would change your description or predictions. Human growth and development through the A life stages A1 Physical development across the life stages Physical growth and development continues throughout a person’s life but you will have noticed that development is not always smooth. During puberty you may have suddenly grown a few centimetres in a short period of time and then stayed T the same height for a while. You may have noticed a small child who suddenly goes from crawling to climbing the stairs. In this section you will look at the key features of physical growth and development across the life stages. AF ▸▸ Table 1.1: Key features of growth and physical development at each life stage Life stage Age Key features Birth and infancy 0–2 years Infants grow rapidly reaching approximately half their adult height by the time they are two years old. At around one year old infants can walk and by DR two years of age they can run. Early childhood 3–8 years Children continue to grow at a steady pace. They continue to develop strength and coordination. Adolescence 9–18 years Adolescents experience growth spurts. They develop sexual characteristics during puberty. Early adulthood 19–45 years Young adults reach the peak of their physical fitness. Middle adulthood 46–65 years The ageing process begins with some loss of strength and stamina. Women go through menopause. Later adulthood 65 years onwards The ageing process continues with gradual loss of mobility. Older adults will experience a loss of height of up to a few centimetres. Growth and development are different concepts Key terms Growth is an increase in a measurable quantity such as height or weight or other dimensions. Development is about the complex changes in skills and capabilities that Growth – an increase in an individual experiences as they grow. some measured quantity, such as height or weight. During their lifespan, an individual will pass through the different stages shown in Development – complex Table 1.1. Life stages are marked by physical, physiological and psychological changes. changes including an increase in skills, abilities and capabilities. 3  Skills and abilities such as gross and fine motor skills and thinking and language skills develop alongside the social roles and expectations associated with different stages of the lifespan. These are referred to as milestones. Principles of growth Growth describes an increase in quantity. For example, children grow taller as they get older. As height increases, so does weight – this is referred to as a process of growth. Although growth is continuous, the rate is not smooth. There can be periods of more rapid growth in infancy and again during puberty which means there can be quite a difference between the rates of growth of two people who are the same age. There are also differences in the growth rates of boys and girls. Growth rates also vary in different parts of the body, for example the head circumference grows more rapidly than other areas in the first months of life. When referring to growth it is important to consider two dimensions: ▸▸ weight ▸▸ length/height. At birth and then between six to eight weeks, a baby’s head circumference will be measured to check the size and growth of the brain. T Infants grow rapidly during the first six months of their lives. Healthy newborns double their birth weight by four to five months, and triple it by the time they reach a year old. By the age of two, a healthy infant will be approximately half their adult height. Not AF only can growth measurements help a health visitor to monitor a child’s health and development, they can also identify other issues for example if an infant is under- or overweight or growing too slowly. Infants will grow on average about 12 cm (4 inches) and gain about 2.5 kg (5 lbs) between one and two years of age. Between their second and third birthday, an infant will gain another 2 kg (4 lbs) and grow about 8 cm (3 inches) more. A health visitor will carry out the measurements and plot the results on a growth chart to ensure that an infant is meeting their milestones. DR 22 22 20 20 18 18 16 16 14 14 Weight (kg) 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 Length (cm) ▸▸ Figure 1.1 An example of a height–weight chart for girls 4 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 If an infant or child is growing as expected their weight will rise steadily following the Human Lifespan Development Key term centile lines marked on their growth chart. All information is recorded in a personal child health record. This ensures that if there is cause for concern about weight or Centile lines (percentiles) height an early referral to a paediatrician can be made. An infant’s head circumference – lines on a graph used to will also be measured if there is any concern about development. show average measurements of height, weight and head Principles of development circumference. The lines Development describes changes that might be complex and involve ability levels represent the values of the altering. measurements taking into Development happens: account age and sex. ▸▸ from head to toe – an infant will first be able to control their head, then develop control over their body to enable them to sit and finally have control over their legs and feet to allow them to crawl and eventually walk ▸▸ from the inside to the outside – an infant learns to control movements in their body first then in their arms and legs until, finally, they can control the small muscles in their fingers ▸▸ in the same sequence but at different rates ▸▸ holistically – areas of development are dependent on and influence each other. T Development can be seen as a journey. As the journey progresses, children reach a number of key milestones. These are also referred to as developmental norms and Key terms describe the skills that infants, children and adolescents are expected to develop at AF particular ages or stages of their life. These norms include walking, talking or tying shoe laces. The four main areas of skills acquisition are: Development norms – a description of an average set of expectations with 1 physical – gross and fine motor skills respect to a young child’s 2 social development development. For example, 3 emotional development by the age of 12 months a child has the ability to stand 4 intellectual development and language skills. DR alone. Although children will pass through the same developmental stages, you should Milestone – an ability remember that every child is unique and develops at their own rate. Norms help achieved by most children professionals describe an average set of expectations. If a child develops faster than by a certain age. It can the norm it does not necessarily mean that the child is ‘gifted’. Neither does it mean involve physical, social, that there is something wrong if a child develops more slowly. emotional, cognitive and Very few people experience their life in ‘compartments’ labelled ‘physical’, ‘intellectual’ communication skills, for ‘emotional’ or ‘social’. Most people experience physical, intellectual, emotional and example walking, sharing with social development holistically. For instance, the development of a child’s social others, expressing emotions, skills is dependent upon the development of their intellectual and language skills. recognising familiar sounds One developmental aspect cannot be assessed without looking as the other aspects. and talking. Developmental milestones provide a useful guide for professionals and enable them Gross motor skills – large to recognise, monitor and take appropriate action if development is delayed in one or movements that involve using more of developmental areas. the large muscles of the body which are required for mobility, Physical development in infancy and early for example rolling over. Fine motor skills – involve childhood smaller movements that Two aspects of physical development are gross motor skills and fine motor skills. require more precise Development of gross motor skills direction (dexterity) and use smaller muscles, for example Gross motor skills are movements that involve using the large muscles of the body. picking up a pencil. These skills allow children to control those body movements that require the use of 5  large muscles in the legs, arms and the torso of the body. As soon as a baby is born, their gross motor skills begin to develop. Gross motor skills are essential for physical play for example playing ‘tag’, which involves running after friends, catching up with them, reaching out and touching someone. Everyday tasks like walking upstairs, running, jumping and throwing a ball, require the use of gross motor skills. Development of fine motor skills In contrast, fine motor skills are actions that require the use of smaller muscles in the hands, fingers and toes. These allow infants to pick things up using their finger and thumb, wriggle their toes in the sand and hold a crayon or small toy. Dressing and undressing, drawing, scribbling and stacking toys are other examples of fine motor skills. Infancy (0–2 years) Development milestones Newborn babies are helpless when it comes to muscle coordination and control. They are unable to hold up their heads, roll over, sit up or use their hands to move objects deliberately. Developing both gross and motor skills allows increasing and more complex movement. By around the age of two, infants develop and use both gross and fine motor skills as they become more independent. For example, when playing T with shape-sorting toys, they use gross motor skills to hold their body steady enough to grasp the shapes firmly and use fine motor skills to fit each shape in the correct slot. Table 1.2 shows some developmental milestones for gross and fine motor skills for AF infants aged from birth to two years. ▸▸ Table 1.2 Gross and fine motor skills developmental milestones in infancy Age Gross motor skills Fine motor skills Newborn Primitive reflexes such as grasp Holds their thumbs tucked into their hands. DR 1 month Lifts chin, some control of head. Opens hands to grasp a finger. 3 months Can lift their head and chest when lying Can briefly grasp a rattle. on front. 6 months Rolls over, can sit up for a short time Moves objects from hand to hand, without support, kicks legs when held can pick up dropped toys if they are up. in sight. 9–10 months Crawls, begins to cruise (walking while Uses finger and thumb to hold a holding on to objects). small object. 12–13 months Stands alone, can walk without help. Manipulates and places toys. 18 months Climbs onto furniture. Builds a short tower with blocks. 2 years Propels a sit-on toy with their feet, Draws lines and circles, turns a page. throws a large ball. 2 and a half Jumps from a low step, kicks a ball. Uses a spoon and fork, builds a years tower of 7–8 blocks. Early childhood (3–8 years) Development of gross motor skills Children’s practical abilities associated with gross motor skills continue to develop. By the age of three, most children will be able to use pedals to ride a tricycle, run and balance on one foot for one second. By the age of four, children may be able to kick and throw a large ball. At five years, they can hop using each foot separately. By the age of six or seven a child may be able to skip and ride a bicycle. At eight years old they will have good strength and body coordination so that they can take part in many sports and activities. 6 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 Human Lifespan Development Research Find more developmental milestones charts and create a table like Table 1.2. See when most children would be able to: run forwards and backwards button and unbutton clothing write their own name use joined-up writing walk in a straight line turn the pages of a book. For each of the points above, state whether this is an example of a gross motor skill or a fine motor skill. Development of fine motor skills Fine motor skills are the ability to control and coordinate smaller movements and muscles such as the movement of hands and fingers. By the age of three, children T should be able to control their movements enough to use a pencil to copy letters or build a tower with cubes. By the age of five, most children should be able to dress and undress on their own, including tying their own shoelaces. At eight years of age, they AF will have good control of their small muscles and be able to draw detailed pictures. Key term Adolescence (9–18 years) Adolescence – an important During adolescence, males and females will experience a number of physical and status change following the growth changes. onset of puberty during DR which a young person Development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics develops from a child into an Puberty takes place over several years. It is a period of rapid change and growth and is adult. experienced by both females and males. Table 1.3 shows some primary and secondary sexual characteristics for both sexes. Primary sexual characteristics relate to the changes and development of reproductive organs, while secondary characteristics are outward signs of development from a child into a man or woman. ▸▸ Table 1.3 Primary and secondary sexual characteristics Primary sexual characteristics Secondary sexual characteristics (present at birth and develop during puberty) (develop during puberty) Female Male Female Male The uterus enlarges and the Enlargement of penis and testes. Breasts develop and the areola Changes in larynx (Adam’s vagina lengthens. (the area around the nipple) apple) causing voice to deepen. swells and darkens. The ovaries begin to release Spontaneous erections caused Hair grows in armpits and pubic Hair grows in armpits and pubic eggs. by blood flowing into chambers area. area, facial hair. in the penis may happen. The menstrual cycle The testicles begin to produce Redistribution of body fat Redistribution of muscle tissue commences. spermatozoa (sperm), beginning causing hips to widen. and fat. of ejaculation. 7  Puberty in girls often starts between the ages of 11 and 13 although it may begin Key terms earlier. Boys generally start puberty later, often between 13 and 15 years of age. Puberty – a period of rapid Puberty is a development stage that prepares the body for sexual reproduction. It is growth during which young triggered by the action of hormones that control sexual development. Both boys and people reach sexual maturity, girls may experience a ‘growth spurt’ when they grow taller at a faster rate than before. and become biologically able to reproduce and secondary The role of hormones in sexual maturity sexual characteristics develop. Sex hormones are responsible for the changes that occur in puberty. The pituitary Hormones – chemical gland controls the release of sex hormones in both females and males. The release substances produced in of sex hormones controls the onset and rate of puberty, the physical changes such as the body and transported pubic and axillary hair growth and egg and sperm production. It can prove to be a in the blood stream that difficult time emotionally for young people as levels of hormones going up or down control or regulate body often cause mood swings. cells or body organs. For The main female hormones are oestrogen and progesterone. The ovaries start to example, the sex hormones produce oestrogen and progesterone which are responsible for changes including produced by the ovaries and ovulation and menstruation. The first period is a significant, notable change for young testes are responsible for the females as it indicates the onset of fertility. development of secondary sexual characteristics in The main male hormone is testosterone. The testes start to produce testosterone T puberty. which stimulates sperm production, indicating the onset of fertility. Testosterone is also responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as a deeper pitch and tone of the voice. Case study AF Changes in adolescence also noticed that she has armpit and pubic hair. Sarah has grown taller and put on weight (caused by increased Jake is 13 and his parents have noticed that he has fat layers under the skin). These are all secondary sexual suddenly become very shy, locking the bathroom DR characteristics. Sarah is getting anxious about changing door and asking them to knock before they enter his for her PE lessons at school as she thinks other girls will bedroom. Jake has noticed that his penis has grown laugh at her. (primary sexual characteristic) and he knows that his testes can produce sperm. His mum has noticed that Check your knowledge Jake’s voice has begun to break and he has hair growing under his armpits (secondary sexual characteristics). 1 Thinking about Jake and Sarah, write a definition Sarah is 12 and she is embarrassed as her periods have that explains the difference between primary and started. Her mum has explained to Sarah that her uterus secondary sexual characteristics. and vagina have grown (primary sexual characteristics). 2 List the female and male sex hormones and write a Sarah has noticed that her breasts have grown and her brief description of their function in puberty. mum has taken her shopping to buy a bra. Sarah has Research Physical development is not controlled purely by genetics. Berryman et al (1991) argue that records show that, in the 1860s, girls did not start puberty until aged 16. It seems that children now start puberty earlier. Consider what environmental influences might have an impact on physical development, for example improvements in diet and increased body weight. 8 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 Early adulthood (19–45 years) Human Lifespan Development Physical strength peaks Young adults are usually at the peak of their physical performance between the ages of 19 and 28. By this age, young adults have reached their full height and strength, and reaction time and manual dexterity are also at their peak. After this, age adults may gradually lose some strength and speed, although these changes are often unnoticed outside of competitive sport. Decline in physical capabilities may be exacerbated toward the end of this life stage if individuals have an unhealthy diet, do not take regular exercise and maintain an unhealthy lifestyle. Exercise and a healthy diet can help to develop physical fitness and athletic skills into middle adulthood. T AF ▸▸ What are the physical and psychological benefits of regular exercise in adulthood? Reflect As an individual moves from adolescence to adulthood, new life experiences and DR challenges will occur. Do you think that it is easy to identify when adolescence ends and adulthood begins? Pregnancy and lactation Pregnancy and lactation are key phases in an adult female’s lifespan. During early pregnancy, women experience many physical and emotional changes in preparation for parenthood. Pregnancy hormones can cause mood swings. Hormonal changes take place, with an increase in progesterone which maintains the pregnancy, while the increase in oestrogen may be responsible for the sickness some women suffer in early pregnancy. Hormones also affect the shape and appearance of their breasts, including darkened veins due to increased blood supply. Nipples and areolas darken and breasts become more sensitive and tender, preparing the breasts to produce milk (lactation) to feed the baby. Perimenopause By the time a woman is in her forties her ovaries gradually begin to make less oestrogen. Key term This means that the ovaries stop producing an egg each month. This stage is generally Menopause – the ending of referred to as the perimenopause transition. Perimenopause lasts until the menopause female fertility, including the which is the point when the ovaries stop releasing eggs. On average perimenopause lasts cessation of menstruation four years. However, this can vary between lasting a few months or as long as 10 years. and reduction in production Perimenopause ends when a woman has not had a monthly period for 12 months. The of female sex hormones. reduction in oestrogen causes physical and emotional symptoms. 9  Women in perimenopause generally experience some of these symptoms: ▸▸ hot flushes and night sweats ▸▸ breast tenderness ▸▸ loss of libido (lower sex drive) ▸▸ fatigue ▸▸ irregular or very heavy periods ▸▸ vaginal dryness, discomfort during sex ▸▸ mood swings ▸▸ trouble sleeping ▸▸ urine leakage when coughing or sneezing ▸▸ urinary urgency (an urgent need to urinate more frequently). Middle adulthood (46-65 years) The menopause Women are most fertile (able to conceive children) in their late teens and early twenties. The risk of miscarriage and pregnancy complications rises with age. Between 45 and 55 years of age fertility reduces and then comes to an end in a process called the menopause. It can take several years to complete. The menopause involves: T ▸▸ gradual ending of menstruation (or stopping having periods) and a large reduction of fertile eggs in the ovaries ▸▸ an increase in the production of hormones called gonadotropins that try to AF stimulate egg production, which can cause irritability, hot flushes and night sweats ▸▸ a reduction in the sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) produced by a woman’s ovaries, resulting in some shrinkage of sexual organs and sometimes a reduction in sexual interest ▸▸ associated problems such as osteoporosis, which can be caused by a reduction in the production of sex hormones. DR For some women, the general hormonal changes, especially reduction in oestrogen levels experienced during the perimenopause and menopause, can lead to mood changes, depression and anxiety. This can make a woman feel that she is on an emotional roller coaster. Some women experience overwhelming sadness that they are no longer able to have children and this can affect their self-image of being a ‘desirable’ woman. Self-esteem and self-image can become low, which may impact on self-confidence and on quality of life during this transitional stage of the lifespan. Effects of the ageing process Often adults put on weight as they age. ’Middle aged spread’ may happen because adults still eat the same amount of food as they did when they were younger although they have become much less active. Along with a change in body shape – increased weight and waistline, loss of skin elasticity and loss of muscle tone and strength – people also begin show other signs of ageing, such as greying and thinning of hair and hair loss. Close your book and draw an outline of a female body. Note the symptoms of P ause p o int perimenopause around the body. Hint Think about what particular physical functions are changing and possible emotional changes. Extend Conduct a risk assessment of an athlete’s training programme – how are they putting themselves at risk? 10 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 Later adulthood (65-plus years) Human Lifespan Development Key term Predicting your life course becomes more difficult in the later life stages. Where ‘old Life expectancy – an age’ was once deemed to be from 65 years of age until the end of one’s life, as life estimate of the number of expectancy has risen, people’s ideas of what is ‘old’ are also changing. years, on average, that a Males Females person can expect to live. 85 Age expected to live to Sometimes called longevity. 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -0 -1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 10 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 Year born ▸▸ Figure 1.2 Changes in life expectancy for males and females over the last 100 years (based on T Office for National Statistics data) In round figures, 120 years is often accepted as the maximum lifespan for a human AF being. Britain’s oldest living person in 2015 was Gladys Hooper from Ryde, Isle of Wight. Mrs Hooper celebrated her 113th birthday in January 2016. Deterioration of health In later adulthood, there are many changes associated with the ageing process. For example, there are changes in body systems and organs which could be the result of disease and that can impact on an individual’s lifestyle. Although most body DR systems continue to function fairly well, the heart becomes more susceptible to disease. Individuals may begin to lose height in middle adulthood which continues into later life. By the age of 80, individuals may have lost as much as 5 cm in height. This is caused by changes in posture and compression of the spinal discs and joints. The ageing process also continues with further loss of strength and muscle loss, as well as a reduction in stamina. Mobility (gross motor skills) and dexterity (fine motor skills) become more difficult. There are small changes to the brain which include loss or shrinkage of nerve cells and a general slowing of movement and responses. Visual and hearing problems may interfere with daily life. Older people can be more susceptible to accidents and falls due to lack of muscular strength and problems with balance or reaction time. Older people can retain reasonable health, especially if they follow a lifestyle that includes a healthy diet and exercise. It can be a time when people take up new interests and hobbies that help to keep them physically mobile and their mind active. Deterioration of intellectual abilities Although many older people are in good mental health, major depressive disorders tend to be undiagnosed. Diseases and conditions that can affect health and wellbeing, for example Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease, are more common in older people. As people are now living longer, Alzheimer’s disease has become more prevalent. Mild cognitive impairment may be an early sign of the disease. 11  Ageing can involve a loss of nerve cells in the brain and a reduction in the ability of nerves to transmit electrical signals. However this does not mean that people lose Key term their ability to think logically or to reason as they have a wealth of experience to draw Cognitive impairment – on. Many older people experience cognitive impairment and report problems when a person has trouble with memory recall. For example, finding themselves often asking ‘Where did I put remembering, learning my glasses?’. Older people may say that it takes longer to do things and they may new skills, concentrating or feel they are slowing down. They may take longer to respond to questions. Reaction making decisions that affect times might also be slower, but older people often compensate for these changes, their everyday life. for instance, driving more carefully. Although older people may worry, changes are a natural process of ageing and not necessarily symptoms of dementia. A2 Intellectual development across the life stages During their lifespan, an individual develops useful ways of thinking and learning. Intellectual and cognitive development refers to how individuals organise their ideas and make sense of the world in which they live. There are five important aspects associated with intellectual development. 1 Language development, which is essential for organising thoughts and to share and express ideas. It is also important for clarification. T 2 Problem solving is an important skill that is required both to work things out and to make predictions about what might happen. 3 Memory is required for storing, recalling and retrieving information. 4 Moral development allows for reasoning and making choices, and informs the AF individual how to act in particular situations and how to act towards self and others. 5 Abstract thoughts and creative thinking are essential for thinking and discussing situations and events that cannot be observed. Understanding how individuals learn, mature and adapt to their life stage is an essential aspect of human growth and development. As an individual progresses DR through the various development stages, their intellectual and cognitive ability increases. This is highlighted by studying the difference between adult and children’s learning styles. The stages of intellectual development across the lifespan can be seen in Table 1.4. ▸▸ Table 1.4 Stages of intellectual development across the lifespan Stage Development Infancy and early childhood Stages of rapid intellectual development. Adolescence to early adulthood Development of logical thought, problem solving and memory recall skills. Middle adulthood Can think through problems and make sound judgements using life experiences. Later adulthood Changes in the brain can cause short-term memory decline and slower thought processes and reaction times. Intellectual and language skills in infancy and early childhood The brain grows very rapidly during the first few years of life. During this time children learn all sorts of new skills and abilities. For example, in early infancy and childhood, there is a rapid growth in language and intellectual skills. Young children have an ability both to understand and to use language, for example a 12-month-old baby saying her first words, a two-year-old child naming parts of his body and a five-year- old constructing complex sentences. 12 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 Over an individual’s lifespan, their brain grows at an amazing rate. At birth, a baby’s Human Lifespan Development brain is about 30 per cent of the size of an adult’s brain. By the age of two, the child’s brain has increased to approximately 80 per cent of the size of an adult’s brain. Speech and language are essential skills needed to communicate with others. Language development begins before birth and develops rapidly (see Table 1.5). From the age of two months, most babies will be ‘cooing’, and, by six months old, they will be responding by making ‘babbling’ noises. The fastest learning takes place for most children between the ages of two and five. By the time a child has reached the age of seven, they have learned the basics of vocabulary, grammar and sentence formation. ▸▸ Table 1.5 The stages of language development Age Language development Around 3 months Infants begin to make babbling noises as they learn to control the muscles associated with speech. Around 12 months Infants begin to imitate sounds made by carers such as ’da da’. This develops into using single words. Around 2 years Infants begin to make two-word sentences, such as ’cat goed’ (meaning the cat has gone away). The infant begins to build their vocabulary (knowledge of words). T Around 3 years Children begin to make simple sentences, such as ’I want drink’. This develops into the ability to ask questions, ’when we go?’ Knowledge of words (vocabulary) grows very rapidly. Around 4 years AF Children begin to use clear sentences that can be understood by strangers. Children can be expected to make some mistakes with grammar, ’we met lots of peoples at the shops today’. 5 years Children can speak using full adult grammar. Although vocabulary will continue to grow and formal grammar will continue to improve, most children can be expected to use language effectively by the age of five. There are many different ways in which language development can be promoted. DR See Table 1.6 for some examples. ▸▸ Table 1.6 Encouraging language development Infants Young children Adolescence Blow bubbles. Take part in circle time. Read a wide range of Play with puppets. Take part in group activities. books and journals. Watch and listen to other Imaginary play in ‘home Take part in group projects. children. corner’. Discuss ideas. Join in with action Share stories and rhymes. Plan and deliver rhymes and songs. Play word games and presentations. Look at picture books. riddles. Theory into practice Visit a video-sharing website such as YouTube and search for ‘Speech Journey’. Watch the video clip about the milestones that most children will achieve. Make notes of some examples of one- or two-word phrases that you hear. If you have any placements with children, see if you can identify these speech milestones. Discuss your examples with other learners. Can you identify a general pattern in the way children develop language? Compare and contrast ways in which individual children develop differently. 13  Key terms Piaget’s model Cognitive development is a child’s ability to learn and solve problems, for example, a two- Abstract logical thinking – month-old baby learning to explore the environment with their hands or eyes or a five- the ability to solve problems year-old learning how to solve simple mathematical problems. One theorist who provided using imagination without insight into cognitive development was the Swiss developmental psychologist, Jean Piaget. having to be involved practically. This is an Stages of cognitive development advanced form of thinking His research focused on how children acquire the ability to think. He came to the that does not always need a conclusion that children think differently to adults. He suggested that a four-year- practical context in order to old cannot use abstract logic (abstract logical thinking) because they are not take place. mature enough (no matter how well they are taught). He observed that infants use Egocentric thinking – not egocentric thinking, which means they can only understand the world from their being able to see a situation own perspective. Piaget believed that the ability to think logically does not happen from another person’s point until around the age of seven years old when children can use simple logic (concrete of view. Piaget thought that logical thinking) to solve problems, for example that the amount of water stays the a young child assumed that same when poured into a different shaped container. other people see, hear and Piaget believed that there were four stages of intellectual development which mature feel exactly the same as the or ‘unfold’ during the early stages of the lifespan (see Table 1.7). child does. ▸▸ Table 1.7 Piaget’s stages of cognitive development T Concrete logical thinking – the ability to solve problems Stage What occurs providing an individual can Sensorimotor: Infants think by interacting with the world using their eyes, ears, hands see or physically handle the issues involved. AF birth–2 years and mouth. As a result, the infant invents ways of solving problems such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys and putting objects into and taking them out of containers. Piaget believed that a baby would not have a way of remembering and thinking about the world until they were about 18 months old. Preoperational: Children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor 2–7 years discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. Piaget believed that children at this stage cannot properly DR understand how ideas like number, mass and volume really work. A child might be able to count to 100 but might not understand what a set of 10 really means. If 10 buttons are stretched out in a line and 10 buttons are placed in a pile, a child might say that there are more buttons in the line because it is longer! Concrete operational: Children’s reasoning becomes logical providing the issues are concrete. 7–11 years In the concrete operational stage, children may be able to understand simple logical principles. For example, if the teacher asks, ’Jessica is taller than Joanne, but Jessica is smaller than Sally, who is the tallest?’ A 7 or 8–year-old might find it difficult to imagine the information needed to answer the question. However, if the teacher shows a picture of Jessica, Joanne and Sally, the child might quickly point out who is the tallest. Formal operational: This is when the capacity for abstract thinking allows adolescents to 11–18 years reason through symbols that do not refer to objects in the real world, as is required in advanced mathematics. Young people can also think of possible outcomes of a scientific problem, not just the obvious ones. Abstract thinking enables individuals to think through complicated ideas in their heads without having to see the concrete image. Piaget’s theory explains cognitive developmental stages up to adolescence. Some psychologists suggest that there is a ’post-formal operational’ stage of thinking in which adults become more skilled in their ability to make flexible judgements. It may be that many adults develop an ability that could be called ’wisdom’ as they grow older. Thinking becomes pragmatic expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life, which permits using judgement about important matters. 14 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 The development of schemas Human Lifespan Development Key terms An important aspect of Piaget’s cognitive development theory was the notion that children go through a series of stages of intellectual development. He referred to Equilibrium – a state of these stages as schemas. According to Piaget, a schema is a category of knowledge cognitive balance when a as well as the process of acquiring knowledge. A child develops concepts about the child’s experience is in line world around them (a state of equilibrium). As they experience situations where with what they understand. new information is presented, their schemas are upset and they reach a state of Disequilibrium – a state of disequilibrium. As the new information is accommodated, the original schemas are cognitive in balance between modified or changed so they again reach a stage of equilibrium. For example, Jack is experience and what is two years old and loves walking near the farm in his village to see the animals in the understood. fields. Jack has developed a schema for a cow. He knows that a cow is large, has four Accommodation – legs and a tail. When Jack sees a horse for the first time he might initially call it a cow modifying schemas (concepts) as it fits with his schema of a large animal. Once Jack has been told that the horse is a in relation to new information different animal, he will modify his existing schema for a cow and create a new schema and experiences. for a horse. What do you think will happen the first time that Jack sees a miniature horse? He could mistakenly identify it as a dog unless someone explains that the animal is actually a very small horse. He must modify his existing schema for a horse to include the fact that while some horses are very large animals, others can be very small. T Tests of conservation In the operational stage (see Table 1.7), children understand the theory of conservation AF – that something’s appearance may change but that its quantity will stay the same. By the age of seven, they have the ability to understand that when you move liquid from a wide container to a tall thin container it does not affect its volume. Younger children might not understand this and think that the amount of liquid has changed because the appearance of the container it is in has changed. This is illustrated by the following case study. DR Case study Using play Jack is five and a half years old. He is at Piaget’s pre- operational stage. Jack loves water play and his mum is using a play activity to introduce him to the idea of the conservation concept. According to Piaget’s theory, Jack will have little understanding of conservation involving liquid quantity until he is six or seven. His mum takes two short fat plastic glasses and begins to fill them with coloured water. She asks Jack to say when the two glasses have the same amount of water in them. She pours a little of the water from one glass to the other until Jack agrees that the level of coloured water is the same. She next pours the coloured water from one of the short fat glasses into a tall thin plastic glass and asks Jack which glass has more coloured water in it. Jack, like most children under the age of six, points to the tall glass. Jack has not developed a concept or schema for the quantity of liquid remaining the same when it is poured into a different glass. 15  Egocentrism Much of Piaget’s preoperational stage focuses on what children are unable to do. Like the concept of conservation, the idea of egocentric behaviour centres on abilities that children have not yet developed. Egocentrism is best described as a young child’s inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view. They assume that other adults and children see, feel, and hear exactly the same as they do. At nursery, preoperational children engage in parallel play – they play alongside rather than together with other children. They are absorbed in their own world and speech is used to externalise their thinking rather than to communicate with other children. Criticisms of Piaget Although Piaget’s theory remains influential in the early years sector, there are criticisms that he based his theory on observations of a small number of children. Critics of Piaget also suggest that the age/stages he describes may be more fluid than he thought and that he underestimated and/or overestimated children’s cognitive abilities. Watching children playing at the age of five, for instance, often shows that they do understand other’s feelings and are far less egocentric than Piaget suggested. Bruner did not agree with Piaget’s notion of fixed stages and ‘readiness’ to learn. He T believes that, with adult support, children can be helped to progress to higher level thinking skills. He, like others, thought that an individual’s ability to use formal logical thought may depend on how much encouragement they have received to think logically. Other research suggests that children take longer than 11 years to become AF skilled at abstract logical thinking. Cognitive development might not be part of a maturation process, it could depend on a child’s environment and the quality of their formal and informal education. Research Research Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, the development of schemas DR and how he used his tests of conservation. You can watch examples of Piaget’s Conservation experiment on video-sharing websites. To what extent do you think his theory may be used in explaining childrens’ thoughts and actions. What do critics say about Piaget’s theories? Close the book and draw a flow chart to show Piaget’s theory on the development of P ause p o int schemas. Hint Schemas are ideas or concepts that children develop, eg based on experiences or things that they see in their environment. Extend Produce a case study that helps to explain your chart. Chomsky’s model of language acquisition Noam Chomsky (1959) believed that the ability to develop a signed or spoken language is genetically programmed into individuals. This means that all individuals have the ability to understand and use language, regardless of other abilities, and to become fluent in their first language by the age of five or six. Language acquisition device (LAD) Chomsky states that individuals are born with a ’language acquisition device’ (LAD) that enables children to recognise and develop the languages they experience. According to Chomsky’s theory, children are ‘preprogrammed’ to acquire language 16 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 and it evolves naturally in the same way that children have the ability to stand and Human Lifespan Development to walk. The ability to use language develops because of maturation – it is the unfolding of an individual’s biological potential. Chomsky believes that a child could not possibly learn a new language through imitation alone because the grammar and syntax of the language around them is often highly irregular. For example, an adult’s speech is often broken up, and they use slang or jargon and ungrammatical sentence construction. Chomsky believes that babies need to experience other people using language but that they do not need to be trained in order to speak. He noted that even if adults around a child use correct grammar or even correct a child, they will continue to apply plural ‘rules’, for instance ‘deers’ or ‘geeses’, if they have reached that particular stage of language development. Chomsky applied his theory to all languages, not just English, as they all contain nouns, verbs, consonants and vowels. Critics of Chomsky point out the lack of scientific evidence to support his theory. Social constructivists such as Bruner would argue that social interaction, particularly in the early stages of language development, is critical and has far more influence on children than Chomsky suggested. Others argue that Chomsky put too much emphasis on the grammar in sentence structure rather than how children construct meaning from their sentences. Chomsky did not take into consideration children T who experience delayed language development for a variety of reasons, for example children who have a learning disability or hearing or speech impairments. Children with Down syndrome are among those whose language is frequently delayed. AF Sign Sign note Discussion Sleep Working in small groups, DR discuss how quickly you learnt to speak when you Eyes closed were young. Compare this with your experience of trying to learn a second language in school. Reflect on how far personal experiences can be Where? explained in terms of a genetic basis for a person’s first language. No sign note Early to middle adulthood In early adulthood, individuals apply the knowledge, skills and experience they have gained during their life. This helps them to think logically and find realistic answers. At this life stage, they are likely to be in job roles which require them to think through problems and make decisions, sometimes relating to complex situations. New brain cells will continue to develop even though, in middle adulthood, there may be a gradual decline in the speed of processing information. 17  The effects of age on the function of memory Memory loss in later adulthood It is assumed that memory loss is associated with the ageing process. However, the brain has an amazing capacity to produce new brain cells at any age. Just as exercise can protect muscular strength, lifestyle, health activities and daily activities have an impact on the brain. Age-related memory lapses can be frustrating but are not necessarily a sign of dementia. Physiological changes that can cause a temporary malfunction in the way the brain functions are part of the ageing process. It might take an older person longer to learn and recall information and this is often mistaken for memory loss. There is a difference between memory lapses and the type of memory loss associated with Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia. Remember the life stages and key physical and intellectual development milestones. P ause p o int Draw a life pathway labelling each stage along the route. Hint There are six life stages described in this unit. Make sure you know and can give age ranges for each life stage. Extend Note one example of physical and intellectual development for each life stage and then check your ideas against the milestones. T A3 Emotional development across the life stages AF Emotional development is the way an individual begins to feel about and value themselves and other people. This forms the basis of emotional literacy and empathy. Emotional development begins with attachments which an infant forms to their main caregiver. If a child forms a strong attachment to their main caregiver, it can help to ensure a positive self-image and good self-esteem. Table 1.8 shows the key features of emotional development throughout the lifespan. DR Key terms Emotional literacy – the ability to recognise, understand and appropriately express emotions. Emotional literacy is essential for forming positive social relationships. Empathy – the ability to identify with or understand another’s situation or feelings, ‘walking a mile in someone else’s shoes’. Attachment – a strong emotional connection between a child and caregiver. Self-image – the way an individual sees themselves, their mental image of themselves. Self-esteem – how a person feels about themselves, self-worth or pride. ▸▸ Table 1.8 Key features of emotional development Life stage Emotional development Infancy: 0–2 years Attachment Bowlby (1953) argued that infants have an inbuilt need to form an attachment with a carer. The quality of this attachment may affect emotional development for the rest of the child’s life. Salter Ainsworth et al (1978) and Marris (1996) argue that the quality of our early attachment influences the assumptions we make about ourself and others. Infants who are securely attached will grow up with the emotional resources needed to cope with uncertainty in life. Infants who are insecurely attached may have a reduced ability to cope with stress and major life events. 18 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 ▸▸ Table 1.8 – continued Human Lifespan Development Key term Early childhood: Understanding self and others Self-concept (sense of 3–8 years Children use their imagination to begin to understand the social roles identity) – an awareness that other people play. Children begin to imagine a ‘me’, an idea of self or formed in early childhood of self-concept. Relationships with other family members may influence being an individual, a unique whether a child feels valued or has a sense of self-worth. The way a child gets on with teachers and friends may influence their self-confidence. The person and different from child might develop a permanent sense of confidence or a sense of failure everyone else. and inferiority. Adolescence: Identity 9–18 years During adolescence, this sense of self continues to develop. An adolescent needs to develop a secure self-concept. A person needs a clear understanding of identity in order to feel secure when working with other people or in order to make a loving sexual attachment. This may be a stressful time as self-esteem may depend on developing identity. Early and middle Intimacy adulthood: In adulthood, an individuals’ self-esteem is influenced by lifestyle such as 19–65 years their job or marital status. Self-image is affected by personal appearance and how others see you. Individuals need to learn to cope with emotional T attachment to a sexual partner. This may involve not being too self- centred or defensive and not becoming emotionally isolated. Later adulthood: 65+ years AF Making sense of your life Older people need a secure sense of self to enable them to cope with the physical changes associated with ageing and death. People who fail to make sense of their lives might experience emotional despair. Attachment to caregivers DR A secure attachment to a main caregiver means that a child will feel secure, loved and have a sense of belonging. Caregivers are the secure base from which children explore the world around them. They are protectors and help the child to feel happy, secure and confident. It is important that parents ensure that children have the physical, mental and emotional nourishment to develop healthily. Secure attachments in childhood lead to happier and healthier attachments with others in the future. If there is a lack of a healthy attachment, then a mistrust of care givers or adults in authority could develop. Insecure attachments can lead to behavioural issues, a lack of ability to receive affection or manipulative behaviour. Children may not develop the secure base necessary to cope with life events. Theories of attachment John Bowlby refers to attachment as a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects a child to their primary caregiver. His attachment theory originated during the 1930s. While working as a child psychiatrist treating many emotionally disturbed children, Bowlby began to consider a child’s relationship with their mother. Bowlby linked the importance of social, emotional and cognitive development to the relationship that the child had with their mother. He believed that children were biologically preprogrammed to form attachments and that infancy is a critical period for forming positive attachments. This led Bowlby to consider problems associated with early separation from the primary caregiver. 19  Working with James Robertson, Bowlby observed that children experienced separation anxiety, an intense distress, when separated from their mothers. The child’s distress and anxiety did not disappear even when they were being fed by another carer. Bowlby suggested that attachment could be understood as evolving from the caregiver providing safety and security for the infant. According to Bowlby, infants have a universal need to seek close proximity with their caregiver when under stress or feeling threatened. Critics argue that Bowlby oversimplified his theory. Rutter argues that maternal deprivation in itself may not result in long-term problems. He suggests that privation is far more damaging. Privation happens when children have not had the opportunity to form attachments or have poor quality attachments caused by a lack of social or intellectual stimulation. While Bowlby believed that attachment is a natural, biological process, others suggest that it is learned behaviour influenced by factors such as the environment, culture and/or the baby’s temperament. You can read more about the nature/nurture argument later in this unit. Research by Schaffer and Emerson suggests that babies are most likely to form attachments to caregivers who respond effectively to their signals. This is not necessarily the person they spend the most time with. This is referred to this as T sensitive responsiveness. The most important factor in forming attachments, therefore, is not the adult who feeds and changes the baby but the adult who plays and communicates with them. AF Schaffer and Emerson (1964) identified a sequence in the development of attachment (see Table 1.9). Key terms Deprivation – being deprived of a caregiver to whom an attachment already exists. Privation – being deprived of the opportunity to form an attachment. DR Separation anxiety – the fear and apprehension that infants experience when separated from their primary caregiver. ▸▸ Table 1.9 Schaffer and Emerson’s sequence of attachment Age range Stage Up to 3 months Most babies respond indiscriminately to any caregiver. 3 months up to 7 months Infants can distinguish the difference between their main caregiver and other people. The infant will accept care from other people. 7 months up to 9 months This is when the infant looks to particular people for security, comfort and protection. The baby shows fear of strangers Key term and unhappiness when separated from their main caregiver. Some infants are more likely to display fear of strangers and Stranger anxiety – when an stranger anxiety than others. infant becomes anxious and 9 months + The baby starts to become more independent and forms fearful around strangers. several attachments, referred to as multiple attachments. Parenting is one of the most important factors affecting children’s development. The way in which parents feel about their child and how they form a relationship with them is crucial. Babies need strong attachments in order to be emotionally and socially well developed. Children with good attachments are likely to have more confidence, higher self-esteem and are, therefore, less likely to show clinginess and demanding behaviour. However, there are several factors that can affect the attachment process and impact on a child’s overall development. 20 Human Lifespan Development  Learning aim A UNIT 1 Human Lifespan Development Prematurity – if a premature baby is in an incubator, they cannot be picked up and held. This can affect the attachment process. Disability – some parents find it Post-natal depression (PND) – harder to attach to a baby with a some mothers are depressed after disability, and they may struggle birth, but PND lasts longer and with their feelings. Some babies may affect a mother’s ability to with disabilities may experience bond with her baby. difficulty forming attachments. Attachment may not go smoothly Separation – separation of Emotional unavailability – may because of: parents from their baby, eg due be due to parents having to illness, bereavement or the problems with alcohol or drug parents divorcing, can affect abuse, illness or generally attachment. This can impact on a struggling with their role. T baby’s sense of identity. Foster care/adoption – ‘looked AF after children’, children within the care system, may experience inconsistency of care givers,which can affect attachments and their sense of identity. ▸▸ Figure 1.3 Examples of reasons for poor attachment DR Case study Ibrahim – early attachment hours as a senior pharmacist and her eldest daughter, Samira, was overseas on a gap year before going to university. Tariq, aged 15 had always been very close to his mum and he helped to look after the baby. Tariq was very good at talking and playing with Ibrahim as well as feeding and bathing him and changing his nappies. Ibrahim soon developed an attachment to Tariq and was very upset when his brother was not with him, refusing to take his feed and becoming very distressed. Check your knowledge Ibrahim was born two months’ prematurely and the 1 Describe what attachment means and explain the midwife quickly realised that he had Down syndrome. importance of attachment in a child’s development. Ayesha, Ibrahim’s mum, was 47 years old when he was 2 Explain three factors that have affected Ibrahim’s born and had experienced a difficult pregnancy. After attachment to his mother. the birth, Ibrahim was taken to the maternity intensive 3 To what extent can Bowlby’s theory justify care unit. Ayesha experienced a severe bout of post- Ibrahim’s reaction to being separated from his natal depression. Ayesha‘s husband Farid worked long brother? 21  The development and importance of self-concept Definitions and factors involved in developing positive or negative self-esteem Positive self-esteem is an important part of emotional wellbeing. Self-esteem involves both self-confidence and self-acceptance. In children, self-esteem is shaped by what they think and feel about themselves. Children who have high self-esteem have an easier time in relationships, resisting peer pressure,